Skip to content
1981
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. International Journal of Music in Early Childhood
  4. Volume 19, Issue 1
  5. Article
Volume 19, Issue 1-2
  • ISSN: 2516-1989
  • E-ISSN: 2516-1997

Abstract

Early childhood music offerings often fall under two categories described as either philanthropically funded projects intended to reach underserved communities or tuition-dependent classes offered to parent–child dyads. The cost, time commitment and energy required for both children and parents to participate in these classes is similar to the cost, time commitment and energy associated with . Of the organizations that provide tuition-dependent classes in the United States, several companies provide opportunities to those interested in operating an early childhood music franchise (ECMF). The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a relationship between US geographic locations (as indicated by zip codes) with ECMFs and the capacity to intensively parent. The following questions guided our inquiry: (1) to what degree do those living in geographic areas where ECMFs are located reflect the income, education, age, race, ethnicity and urbanicity associated with intensive parenting? and (2) to what extent do these characteristics align with national averages? Of the 41,618 total zip codes in the United States, we found 1362 zip codes with at least one ECMF. In those 1362 zip codes, median family income, educational achievement and a combined measure of educational achievement, income and employment in professional or executive positions were all statistically significantly higher than national averages. There were more people under the age of 50 than the national average, and although the areas were overwhelmingly more urban than rural, the race/ethnicity of those living in these areas was less diverse than typically found in urban areas. Results indicated that ECMFs in the United States are located in areas with households that share the attributes of those likely to practice intensive parenting.

© 2024 Intellect Ltd
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1386/ijmec_00075_1
2025-04-21
2025-05-22
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Bandelj, N. and Grigoryeva, A. (2021), ‘Investment, saving, and borrowing for children: Trends by wealth, race, and ethnicity, 1998–2016’, RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 7:3, pp. 50–77, https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2021.7.3.03.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Bolduc, J. (2009), ‘Effects of a music programme on kindergartners’ phonological awareness skills 1’, International Journal of Music Education, 27:1, pp. 37–47, https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761408099063.
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Brown, E. D., Benedett, B. and Armistead, M. E. (2010), ‘Arts enrichment and school readiness for children at risk’, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25:1, pp. 112–24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.07.008.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Carolan, B. V. and Wasserman, S. J. (2015), ‘Does parenting style matter? Concerted cultivation, educational expectations, and the transmission of educational advantage’, Sociological Perspectives, 58:2, pp. 168–86, https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121414562967.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Conkling, S. W. (2019), ‘Parenting and out-of-school music participation: An interrogation of concerted cultivation’, International Journal of Community Music, 12:1, pp. 129–43, https://doi.org/10.1386/ijcm.12.1.129_1.
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Cooper, S. and Cardany, A. (2011), ‘The importance of parents in early childhood music program evaluation’, in C. Taggart and S. Burton (eds), Learning from Young Children: Research in Early Childhood Music, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 95–112.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Crockard, A. (1996), ‘Confessions of a brain surgeon’, New Scientist, 2061, p. 68.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Cromartie, J. (2018), Rural America at a Glance: 2018 Edition, Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, https://ers.usda.gov/sites/default/files/laserfiche/publications/90556/EIB-200.pdf?v=44787. Accessed 17 January 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Cromartie, J. (2023), ‘Rural-urban commuting area codes’, U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, 30 September, https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/rural-urban-commuting-area-codes/. Accessed 13 January 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Culp, M. E. (2017), ‘The relationship between phonological awareness and music aptitude’, Journal of Research in Music Education, 65:3, pp. 328–46, https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429417729655.
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Currid-Halkett, E. (2017), The Sum of Small Things: A Theory of the Aspirational Class, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Custodero, L. A. (2005), ‘Observable indicators of flow experience: A developmental perspective on musical engagement in young children from infancy to school age’, Music Education Research, 7:2, pp. 185–209, https://doi.org/10.1080/14613800500169431.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Custodero, L. A. (2006), ‘Singing practices in 10 families with young children’, Journal of Research in Music Education, 54:1, pp. 37–56, https://doi.org/10.2307/3653454.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Dansereau, D. R. (2023), ‘Compassion during musical engagement with young children’, in K. S. Hendricks (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Care in Music Education, New York City: Oxford University Press, pp. 56–68.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Dansereau, D. R., Donahue, R. and Speelman, D. (2024), ‘Music activities of US children in center-based early care and education settings’, Arts Education Policy Review, pp. 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1080/10632913.2024.2388548.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Dekker, S., Lee, N. C., Howard-Jones, P. and Jolles, J. (2012), ‘Neuromyths in education: Prevalence and predictors of misconceptions among teachers’, Frontiers in Psychology, 3, pp. 429–29, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00429.
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Deli, E., Bakle, I. and Zachopoulou, E. (2006), ‘Implementing intervention movement programs for kindergarten children’, Journal of Early Childhood Research, 4:1, pp. 5–18, https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718x06059785.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Demorest, S., Nichols, B. and Pfordresher, P. Q. (2018), ‘The effect of focused instruction on young children’s singing accuracy’, Psychology of Music, 46:4, pp. 488–99, https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735617713120.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Dhingra, P. (2019), ‘Achieving more than grades: Morality, race, and enrichment education’, American Journal of Cultural Sociology, 7:3, pp. 275–98, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41290-018-0059-9.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Elnakat, A., Gomez, J. D. and Booth, N. (2016), ‘A zip code study of socioeconomic, demographic, and household gendered influence on the residential energy sector’, Energy Reports, 2, pp. 21–27, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2016.01.003.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Faircloth, C. (2014), ‘Intensive parenting and the expansion of parenting’, in E. J. Lee, J. Bristow, C. Faircloth and J. Macvarish (eds), Parenting Culture Studies, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 25–51.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Gerry, D., Unrau, A. and Trainor, L. J. (2012), ‘Active music classes in infancy enhance musical, communicative and social development’, Developmental Science, 15:3, pp. 398–407, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01142.x.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Gromko, J. E. (2005), ‘The effect of music instruction on phonemic awareness in beginning readers’, Journal of Research in Music Education, 53:3, pp. 199–209, https://doi.org/10.2307/3598679.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Gruhn, W. (2002), ‘Phases and stages in early music learning: A longitudinal study on the development of young children’s musical potential’, Music Education Research, 4:1, pp. 51–71, https://doi.org/10.1080/14613800220119778.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Hall, R. E. (2005), ‘Employment efficiency and sticky wages: Evidence from flows in the labor market’, Review of Economics and Statistics, 87:3, pp. 397–407, https://doi.org/10.1162/0034653054638346.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Hanks, A., Solomon, D. and Weller, C. E. (2018), ‘Systematic inequality: How America’s structural racism helped create the Black-White wealth gap’, Center for American Progress, 21, pp. 3–12.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Harlow, M. and Fraser-Thomas, J. (2021), ‘Organized sport for toddlers and preschoolers’, in R. Bailey, J. P. Agans, J. Côté, A. Daly-Smith and P. D. Tomporowski (eds), Physical Activity and Sport During the First Ten Years of Life, London: Routledge, pp. 85–100.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Hays, S. (1996), The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Ilari, B. (2011), ‘Twenty-first-century parenting, electronic media, and early childhood music education’, in S. L. Burton and C. C. Taggart (eds), Learning from Young Children: Research in Early Childhood Music, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 195–212.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Ilari, B. (2014), ‘Musical thinking in the early years’, in S. Robson and S. F. Quinn (eds), The Routledge International Handbook of Young Children’s Thinking and Understanding, New York City: Routledge, pp. 318–30.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Irwin, V., De La Rosa, J., Wang, K., Hein, S., Zhang, J., Burr, R. and Roberts, A. (2022), Report on the Condition of Education, NCES 2022-144, Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Ishizuka, P. (2019), ‘Social class, gender, and contemporary parenting standards in the United States: Evidence from a national survey experiment’, Social Forces, 98:1, pp. 31–58, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy107.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Kent, A. H. and Ricketts, L. R. (2020), ‘Has wealth inequality in America changed over time? Here are key statistics’, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 2 December, https://www.stlouisfed.org/open-vault/2020/december/has-wealth-inequality-changed-over-time-key-statistics. Accessed 13 January 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Kent, A. H. and Ricketts, L. R. (2024), ‘U.S. wealth inequality: Gaps remain despite widespread wealth gains’, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 7 February, https://www.stlouisfed.org/open-vault/2024/feb/us-wealth-inequality-widespread-gains-gaps-remain. Accessed 13 January 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Kim, H. K. and Kemple, K. M. (2011), ‘Is music an active developmental tool or simply a supplement? Early childhood preservice teachers’ beliefs about music’, Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 32:2, pp. 135–47, https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2011.572228.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Kindermusik International, Inc. (2024), ‘How do music and movement supercharge brainpower?’, https://www.kindermusik.com/families. Accessed 13 January 2025.
  37. Kirby, A. L., Dahbi, M., Surrain, S., Rowe, M. L. and Luk, G. (2023), ‘Music uses in preschool classrooms in the US: A multiple-methods study’, Early Childhood Education Journal, 51:3, pp. 515–29, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-022-01309-2.
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Koops, L. H. (2007), ‘Perceptions of current and desired involvement in early childhood music instruction’, Visions of Research in Music Education, 17:1, p. 5.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Lee, E., Bristow, J., Faircloth, C. and Macvarish, J. (2015), Parenting Culture Studies, New York City: Springer.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Meade, E., Gilliland, S. and Weeden, J. (2023), ‘Lost in the labyrinth: Helping parents navigate early care and education programs’, New America, 4 April, https://www.newamerica.org/new-practice-lab/briefs/lost-in-the-labyrinth-helping-parents-navigate-early-care-and-education-programs/. Accessed 13 January 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Melendez, R., Clarke, P., Khan, A., Gomez-Lopez, I., Li, M. and Chenoweth, M. (2020), National Neighborhood Data Archive (NaNDA): Socioeconomic Status and Demographic Characteristics of Census Tracts, United States, 2008–2017, Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, https://doi.org/10.3886/E119451V2.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Music Together LLC (2024a), ‘Your own Music Together® business’, https://www.musictogether.com/offer/become-a-center-director/licensing. Accessed 4 November 2024.
  43. Music Together LLC (2024b), ‘Music classes for children, schools, and therapy’, https://www.musictogether.com/. Accessed 18 October 2024.
  44. Musikgarten (n.d.), ‘Why Musikgarten’, https://www.musikgarten.org/why-musikgarten​. Accessed 18 October 2024.
  45. National Center for Education Statistics (2024), Annual Earnings by Educational Attainment, Condition of Education 2024, NCES 2024-144, Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cba. Accessed 12 February 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Nelson, M. K. (2010), Parenting Out of Control: Anxious Parents in Uncertain Times, New York: New York University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  47. O’Hare, W. P. (2019), ‘The importance of census accuracy: Uses of census data’, Differential Undercounts in the US Census: Who Is Missed?, Cape Charles, VA: O’Hare Data and Demographic Services LLC, pp. 13–24.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Rajan, R. S. (2017), ‘Music education in Montessori schools: An exploratory study of school directors’ perceptions in the United States’, International Journal of Music Education, 35:2, pp. 227–38, https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761416659508.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Register, D. (2001), ‘The effects of an early intervention music curriculum on prereading/writing’, Journal of Music Therapy, 38:3, pp. 239–48, https://doi.org/10.1093/jmt/38.3.239.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Register, D. (2004), ‘Teaching child-care personnel to use music in the classroom: A comparison of workshop training versus on-site modeling’, Music Therapy Perspectives, 22:2, pp. 109–15, https://doi.org/10.1093/mtp/22.2.109.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Register, D. and Humpal, M. (2007), ‘Using musical transitions in early childhood classrooms: Three case examples’, Music Therapy Perspectives, 25:1, pp. 25–31, https://doi.org/10.1093/mtp/25.1.25.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Rodriguez, A. M. (2019), ‘Parents’ perceptions of early childhood music participation’, International Journal of Community Music, 12:1, pp. 95–110, https://doi.org/10.1386/ijcm.12.1.95_1.
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Runfola, M., Etopio, E., Hamlen, K. and Rozendal, M. (2012), ‘Effect of music instruction on preschoolers’ music achievement and emergent literacy achievement’, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 192, pp. 7–27, https://doi.org/10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.192.0007.
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Rutkowski, J. (2015), ‘The relationship between children’s use of singing voice and singing accuracy’, Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 32:3, pp. 283–92, https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2015.32.3.283.
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Rutkowski, J. and Miller, M. S. (2003), ‘The effect of teacher feedback and modeling on first graders’ use of singing voice and developmental music aptitude’, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 156, pp. 1–10, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319169. Accessed 13 January 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Schaeffer, K. and Aragao, C. (2023), ‘Key facts about moms in the U.S’, Pew Research Center, 9 May, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/05/09/facts-about-u-s-mothers/. Accessed 13 January 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  57. United States Census Bureau (2022), ‘Median income in the past 12 months’, https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST1Y2022.S1903?q=median%20household%20income%202022&g=310XX00US47900. Accessed 18 October 2024.
  58. United States Census Bureau (2023), ‘PINC-04. Educational attainment: People 18 years old and over, by total money earnings, work experience, age, race, Hispanic origin, and sex’, 18 October, https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/cps-pinc/pinc-04.html. Accessed 13 January 2025.
  59. Valerio, W. H., Seaman, M. A., Yap, C. C., Santucci, P. M. and Tu, M. (2006), ‘Vocal evidence of toddler music syntax acquisition: A case study’, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 70, pp. 33–45, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319347. Accessed 13 January 2025.
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Walton, P. (2014), ‘Using singing and movement to teach pre-reading skills and word reading to kindergarten children: An exploratory study’, Language and Literacy, 16:3, pp. 54–77, https://doi.org/10.20360/g2k88j.
     [Google Scholar]
  61. White House Council of Economic Advisors (2024), ‘Child care is infrastructure: evidence from universal pre-K’, 27 September, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Child-Care-is-Infrastructure-Issue-Brief-9.27.24.pdf. Accessed 18 October 2024.
  62. Williams, D. R., Priest, N. and Anderson, N. B. (2016), ‘Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: Patterns and prospects’, Health Psychology, 35:4, pp. 407–11, https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000242.
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Winters, K. L. and Griffin, S. (2014), ‘Singing is a celebration of language: Using music to enhance young children’s vocabularies’, Language and Literacy, 16:3, pp. 78–91, https://doi.org/10.20360/g2zk5x.
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Young, S. (2003), Music with the Under-Fours, London: Routledge.
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Young, S. (2017), ‘The branded product and the funded project: Neoliberal policies creating musical spaces in early childhood’, in J. Pitt and A. Street (eds), Proceedings of the 8th Conference of the European Network of Music Educators and Researchers of Young Children, 17–20 July, Hague: MERYC-England, pp. 302–09.
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Young, S. (2020), ‘Beware the neuromyths! A critical discussion on the “brainification” of early childhood music’, International Journal of Music in Early Childhood, 15:1, pp. 11–24, https://doi.org/10.1386/ijmec_00009_1.
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Zachopoulou, E., Tsapakidou, A. and Derri, V. (2004), ‘The effects of a developmentally appropriate music and movement program on motor performance’, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19:4, pp. 631–42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2004.10.005.
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1386/ijmec_00075_1
Loading
A zip code-level analysis of early childhood music franchises in the United States
International Journal of Music in Early Childhood 19, 31 (2024); https://doi.org/10.1386/ijmec_00075_1
/content/journals/10.1386/ijmec_00075_1
/content/journals/10.1386/ijmec_00075_1
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Article
Keyword(s): access to music; commercialized education; early childhood music; early years; intensive parenting; role of music; young children

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a success
Invalid data
An error occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test