Popular music and political change in Cte d'Ivoire: the divergent dynamics of zouglou and reggae

In Cte d'Ivoire, popular music genres such as reggae and zouglou have served as a domain for the articulation of ideas about politicians, corruption, citizenship, national history and identity. This paper specifically analyses the divergent dynamics of reggae and zouglou. Reggae, in Cte d'Ivoire as in its country of origin Jamaica, has characteristically been associated with commentary on socio-political issues. zouglou emerged in the 1990s in the context of the student demonstrations for political liberalization and, along with reggae, served as a platform for criticism of prevailing social and political conditions. Ivorian popular music has consequently been associated with the return to multi-party politics. It has also been very outspoken against divisive political rhetoric such as Ivoirit. However, after the outbreak of open conflict in 2002, new themes have emerged in zouglou. In compilations that have been termed patriotic albums, many well-known artists have aligned themselves with the government and the Alliance of Young Patriots, depicting a partial, southern portrayal of the conflict. Thus ideological positions in Ivorian music have varied over time and across genres, and a category such as protest music is ill suited to fully capture its dimensions.