Music, performance and ZANU-PF’s hegemony in Mugabe’s newly independent Zimbabwe

References

1. Abrams, D.. ( 2010), Processes of Prejudice: Theory, Evidence and Intervention, Research Report 56, Manchester:: Equality and Human Rights Commission;.
   [Google Scholar]
2. African Press ( 1985;), ‘ Matabeleland excesses by government interviews. ’, YouTube, 22 April, https://youtu.be/ohD8BspU4DQ. Accessed 20 May 2020.
   [Google Scholar]
3. Allen, I.. ( 1983), The Language of Ethnic Conflict: Social Organization and Lexical Culture, New York:: Columbia University Press;.
   [Google Scholar]
4. Anon. ( 2017;), ‘ Gukurahundi ghosts haunt Mnangagwa. ’, Mail & Guardian, 24 November, https://mg.co.za/article/2017-11-24-00-gukurahundi-ghosts-haunt-mnangagwa. Accessed 15 April 2021.
   [Google Scholar]
5. Barber, K.. ( 1987;), ‘ Popular arts in Africa. ’, African Studies Review, 30:3, pp. 1–78.
   [Google Scholar]
6. Boggs, C.. ( 1984), The Two Revolutions: Antonio Gramsci and the Dilemma of Western Marxism, Boston, MA:: South End Press;.
   [Google Scholar]
7. British Broadcasting Corporation ( 1983;), ‘ Panorama: Gukurahundi part 1. ’, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6Zie7OoRDY&t=374s. Accessed 20 May 2020.
   [Google Scholar]
8. Catholic Commission for Justice, Peace in Zimbabwe and Legal Resources Foundation ( 1997), Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace: A Report on the Disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands, 1980 to 1988, Harare:: Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe;.
   [Google Scholar]
9. Chikowero, M.. ( 2007;), ‘ The state and music policy in post-colonial Zimbabwe, 1980–2000. ’, Muziki, 4:1, pp. 111–28.
   [Google Scholar]
10. Chirambo, R.. ( 2004;), ‘ Operation Bwezani: The army, political change, and Dr. Banda’s hegemony in Malawi. ’, Nordic Journal of African Studies, 13:2, pp. 146–63.
    [Google Scholar]
11. Chirambo, R. M.. ( 2006;), ‘ Traditional and popular music, hegemonic power and censorship in Malawi: 1964–1994. ’, in M. Drewett, and M. Cloonan. (eds), Popular Music and Censorship in Africa, Aldershot and Burlington:: Ashgate;, pp. 123–40.
    [Google Scholar]
12. Chirambo, R. M.. ( 2009;), ‘ Democracy as a limiting factor for politicised cultural populism in Malawi. ’, Africa Spectrum, 44:2, pp. 77–94.
    [Google Scholar]
13. Chirwa, W. C.. ( 2001;), ‘ Dancing towards dictatorship: Political songs and popular culture in Malawi. ’, Nordic Journal of African Studies, 10:1, https://njas.fi/njas/article/download/587/417. Accessed 20 May 2020.
    [Google Scholar]
14. Chitando, E., and Tarusarira, J.. ( 2017;), ‘ The deployment of a “sacred song” in violence in Zimbabwe: The case of the song “Zimbabwe Ndeye Ropa Ramadzibaba” (Zimbabwe was/is born of the blood of the fathers/ancestors) in Zimbabwean politics. ’, Journal for the Study of Religion, 30:1, pp. 5–25.
    [Google Scholar]
15. Cloonan, M., and Johnson, B.. ( 2002;), ‘ Killing me softly with his song: An initial investigation into the use of popular music as a tool of oppression. ’, Popular Music, 21:1, pp. 27–39.
    [Google Scholar]
16. Conboy, M.. ( 2002), The Press and Popular Culture, London:: Sage;.
    [Google Scholar]
17. Facebook ( 2019;), ‘ The dissident party and their dissident father are both destined not only for rejection but for utter destruction as well. ’, 6 September, https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=2649003001778601. Accessed 30 August 2022.
18. Gaidzanwa, R. B.. ( 2015;), ‘ Mugabe’s masculinist politics. ’, in S. J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni. (ed.), Mugabeism? History, Politics, and Power in Zimbabwe, New York:: Palgrave Macmillan;, pp. 157–79.
    [Google Scholar]
19. Gramsci, A.. ( 1971), Selections from the Prison Notebooks, London:: Lawrence and Wishart;.
    [Google Scholar]
20. Hadebe, S.. ( 2020;), ‘ The ethnicization of political mobilization in Zimbabwe: The case of pro-Mthwakazi movements. ’, in S. J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, and P. Ruhanya. (eds), The History and Political Transition of Zimbabwe: From Mugabe to Mnangagwa, Cham:: Palgrave Macmillan;, pp. 156–80.
    [Google Scholar]
21. Kriger, N.. ( 2003), Guerrilla in Post-War Zimbabwe: Symbolic and Violent Politics, 1980–1987, Cambridge:: Cambridge University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
22. Maedza, P.. ( 2017;), ‘ “Mai VaDhikondo”: Echoes from the requiems from the killing fields. ’, Social Dynamics, 43:2, pp. 215–29.
    [Google Scholar]
23. Mamdani, M.. ( 2001), When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and Genocide in Rwanda, Princeton, NJ:: Princeton University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
24. Mano, W.. ( 2011;), ‘ Popular music as journalism in Africa: Issues and contexts. ’, in H. Wasserman. (ed.), Popular Media, Democracy and Development in Africa, London and New York:: Routledge;, pp. 107–20.
    [Google Scholar]
25. Mare, A.. ( 2020;), ‘ Popular communication in Africa: An empirical and theoretical exposition. ’, Annals of the International Communication Association, 44:1, pp. 81–99.
    [Google Scholar]
26. Maseko, B., and Nkomo, D.. ( 2022;), ‘ The linguistic dimensions of Gukurahundi in Zimbabwe. ’, in M. Mpofu, and P. F. Makombe. (eds), Memory and Erasure: Gukurahundi and the Culture of Violence in Zimbabwe, Harare:: Weaver Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
27. Meredith, M.. ( 2009), Mugabe: Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe, New York:: Public Affairs;.
    [Google Scholar]
28. Mhlanga, B.. ( 2013;), ‘ Ethnicity or tribalism? The discursive construction of Zimbabwean national identity. ’, African Identities, 11:1, pp. 47–60.
    [Google Scholar]
29. Moyo, J. N.. ( 1992), Voting for Democracy: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe, Harare:: University of Zimbabwe Publications;.
    [Google Scholar]
30. Moyo, J. N.. ( 1993;), ‘ Civil society in Zimbabwe. ’, Zambezia, 20:1, https://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?file=/DMC/African+Journals/pdfs/Journal+of+the+University+of+Zimbabwe/vol20n1/juz020001002.pdf. Accessed 30 August 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
31. Mudenge, S.. ( 1988), A Political History of Munhumutapa, Harare:: Zimbabwe Publishing House;.
    [Google Scholar]
32. Muhwati, I.,, Charamba, T., and Tembo, C.. (eds) ( 2018), Singing Nation and Politics: Music and the ‘Decade of Crisis’ in Zimbabwe 2000–2010, Gweru:: Midlands State University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
33. Mullen, B., and Rice, D. R.. ( 2003;), ‘ Ethnophaulisms and exclusion: The behavioural consequences of cognitive representation of ethnic immigrant groups. ’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29:8, pp. 1056–67.
    [Google Scholar]
34. Muponde, R.. ( 2004;), ‘ The worm and the hoe: Cultural politics and reconciliation after the third Chimurenga. ’, in B. Raftopoulos, and T. Savage. (eds), Zimbabwe: Injustice and Political Reconciliation, Cape Town:: Institute for Justice and Reconciliation;, pp. 176–92.
    [Google Scholar]
35. Musiyiwa, M.. ( 2008;), ‘ The mobilisation of popular music in the promotion of national unity in Zimbabwe. ’, Muziki, 5:1, pp. 11–29.
    [Google Scholar]
36. Muzondidya, J., and Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.. ( 2007;), ‘ Echoing silences: Ethnicity in post-colonial Zimbabwe, 1980–2007. ’, African Journal of Conflict Resolution, 27:2, pp. 275–97.
    [Google Scholar]
37. Ncube, W.. ( 1991;), ‘ Constitutionalism, democracy and political practice in Zimbabwe. ’, in I. Mandaza, and L. Sachikonye. (eds), The One-Party State and Democracy: The Zimbabwean Debate, Harare:: SAPES Books;, pp. 155–77.
    [Google Scholar]
38. Ndebele, Z.. ( 2019;), Gukurahundi genocide: 36 years later. , YouTube, https://youtu.be/Q2b5iVGCDs0. Accessed 30 August 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
39. Ndhlovu, F.. ( 2006;), ‘ Gramsci, doke and the marginalisation of the Ndebele language in Zimbabwe. ’, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 27:4, pp. 305–18.
    [Google Scholar]
40. Ndlovu, I., and Dube, B.. ( 2013;), ‘ Response to Maurice T. Vambe’s Zimbabwe genocide: Voices and perceptions from ordinary people in Matabeleland and the Midlands provinces, 30 years on. ’, African Identities, 11:4, pp. 353–66.
    [Google Scholar]
41. Ndlovu, S.. ( 2018;), ‘ Singing the forbidden: An analysis of the political significance of Viomark’s song “Gukurahundi”. ’, in I. Muhwati,, T. Charamba, and C. Tembo. (eds), Singing Nation and Politics: Music and the ‘Decade of Crisis’ in Zimbabwe 2000–2010, Gweru:: Midlands State University Press;, pp. 171–87.
    [Google Scholar]
42. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J.. ( 2003), The Post-Colonial State and Matabeleland: Regional Perceptions of Civil–Military Relations, 1980–2002, Pretoria:: Institute of Security Studies;.
    [Google Scholar]
43. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J.. ( 2009a;), ‘ Making sense of Mugabeism in local and global politics: “So Blair, keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe”. ’, Third World Quarterly, 30:6, pp. 1139–58.
    [Google Scholar]
44. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J.. ( 2009b), Do ‘Zimbabweans’ Exist? Trajectories of Nationalism, National Identity Formation and Crisis in a Postcolonial State, Oxford:: Peter Lang;.
    [Google Scholar]
45. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J., and Willems, W.. ( 2009;), ‘ Making sense of cultural nationalism and the politics of commemoration under the third Chimurenga in Zimbabwe. ’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 35:4; pp. 945–65.
    [Google Scholar]
46. Nuessel, F.. ( 2008;), ‘ A note on ethnophaulisms and hate speech. ’, Names, 56:1, pp. 29–31.
    [Google Scholar]
47. Nyambi, O.. ( 2018;), ‘ Metaphors of depravation and plenty in Hosiah Chipanga’s songs of the crisis. ’, in I. Muhwati,, T. Charamba, and C. Tembo. (eds), Singing Nation and Politics: Music and the ‘Decade of Crisis’, in Zimbabwe 2000–2010, Gweru:: Midlands State University Press;, pp. 21–33.
    [Google Scholar]
48. Phimister, I.. ( 2012;), ‘ Narratives of progress: Zimbabwean historiography and the end of history. ’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 30:1, pp. 27–34.
    [Google Scholar]
49. Pongweni, A. J.. ( 1982), Songs That Won the Liberation War, Gweru:: College Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
50. Ranger, T.. ( 2004;), ‘ Nationalist historiography, patriotic history and the history of the nation: The struggle over the past in Zimbabwe. ’, Journal for Southern African Studies, 30:2, pp. 215–34.
    [Google Scholar]
51. Rappaport, L.. ( 2005), Punchlines: The Case for Racial, Ethnic and Gender Humour, Westport, CT:: Greenwood Publishing;.
    [Google Scholar]
52. Ravengai, S.. ( 2011;), ‘ Subalternity and the negotiation of a theatre identity: Performing the postcolony in alternative Zimbabwean theatre. ’, Ph.D., thesis, Cape Town:: University of Cape Town.
    [Google Scholar]
53. Reed, W. C.. ( 1993;), ‘ International politics and national liberation: ZANU and the politics of contested sovereignty in Zimbabwe 1. ’, African Studies Review, 36:2, pp. 31–59.
    [Google Scholar]
54. Rønning, H., and Kupe, T.. ( 2000;), ‘ The dual legacy of democracy and authoritarianism. ’, in J. Curran, and M. J. Park. (eds), De-Westernizing Media Studies, London:: Routledge;, pp. 157–77.
    [Google Scholar]
55. Simon, R.. ( 1982), Gramsci’s Political Thought: An Introduction, London:: Lawrence & Wishart;.
    [Google Scholar]
56. Sithole, M., and Makumbe, J.. ( 1997;), ‘ Elections in Zimbabwe: The ZANU (PF) hegemony and its incipient decline. ’, Revue Africaine de Science Politique (African Journal of Political Science), 2:1, pp. 122–39.
    [Google Scholar]
57. Strauss, J., and O’Brien Donal, B.. ( 2007;), ‘ Introduction. ’, in J. C. Strauss, and D. B. C. O’Brien. (eds), Staging Politics: Power and Performance in Asia and Africa, London:: I.B. Tauris;, pp. 1–14.
    [Google Scholar]
58. Thram, D.. ( 2006;), ‘ ZVAKWANA! ENOUGH! Media control and unofficial censorship of music in Zimbabwe. ’, in M. Drewett, and M. Cloonan. (eds), Popular Music and Censorship in Africa, Aldershot and Burlington:: Ashgate;, pp. 85–104.
    [Google Scholar]
59. Tollefson, J. W.. ( 1991), Language Planning, Planning Inequality: Language Policy in the Community, London:: Longman;.
    [Google Scholar]
60. Vambe, M. T.. ( 2012;), ‘ Zimbabwe genocide: Voices and perceptions from ordinary people in Matabeleland and the Midlands provinces, 30 years on. ’, African Identities, 10:3, pp. 281–300.
    [Google Scholar]
61. Viriri, A.. ( 2018;), ‘ Manipulating the pungwe in troubled times in Zimbabwe: An analysis of selected songs performed at galas 2000–2010. ’, in I. Muhwati,, T. Charamba, and C. Tembo. (eds), Singing Nation and Politics: Music and the ‘Decade of Crisis’ in Zimbabwe 2000–2010, Gweru:: Midlands State University Press;, pp. 144–56.
    [Google Scholar]
62. Werbner, R.. ( 1991), Tears of the Dead: The Social Biography of an African Family, Harare:: Baobab Books;.
    [Google Scholar]
63. Werbner, R.. ( 1995;), ‘ In memory: A heritage of war in south-western Zimbabwe. ’, in N. Bhebe, and T. Ranger. (eds), Society in Zimbabwe’s Liberation War, Harare:: University of Zimbabwe Publications;, pp. 192–205.
    [Google Scholar]
64. Zimbabwe: The Daily Show ( 2010;), ‘ Zimbabwe – Gukurahundi – What Bob, Mnangagwa & Msika had to say. ’, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aMojwBuTtXY. Accessed 20 May 2020.
65. Zvobgo, E.. ( 1984;), ‘ The ZANU idea. ’, in G. Baumhogger,, U. Engel, and T. Diederishen. (eds), The Struggle for Independence: Documents on the Recent Developments in Zimbabwe (1975–1980), Hamburg:: Institute for African Studies;, pp. 23–24.
    [Google Scholar]
66. Mpofu, Mandlenkosi, and Sibanda, Nkululeko. ( 2023;), ‘ Music, performance and ZANU-PF’s hegemony in Mugabe’s newly independent Zimbabwe. ’, Journal of African Media Studies, 15:1, pp. 27–47, https://doi.org/10.1386/jams_00091_1
    [Google Scholar]