Volume 13, Issue 3

Abstract

In this article, we develop a theory of gameplay labour, acknowledging the paradigm of political economy yet grounded in game design and play, called ‘cultivation play’. In most understandings of game work, theorists traditionally explain digital labour in games as inherently difficult or manipulative. Instead, we propose a theory that explains how gameplay work can be organized around a design heuristic – character progression – that is rewarding, given the objectives and interests of different kinds of players. We explicate our theoretical intervention through an analysis of four games: and . We specifically examine upgrade paths, what we call character progression tasks, wherein levelling up, progressing, gaining in-game skills and working towards goals operate to create an environment of gameplay work that players may find engaging.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1386/jgvw_00040_1
2021-10-01
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Billieux, J.,, van der Linden, M.,, Achab, S.,, Khazaal, Y.,, Paraskevopoulos, L.,, Zullino, D., and Thorens, G.. ( 2013;), ‘ Why do you play World of Warcraft? An in-depth exploration of self-reported motivations to play online and in-game behaviours in the virtual world of Azeroth. ’, Computers in Human Behavior, 29:1, pp. 10309.
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Boyle, A.. ( 2011;), ‘ Gamers solve molecular puzzles that baffled scientists. ’, NBC News, 18 September, https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/gamers-solve-molecular-puzzle-baffled-scientists-f6c10402813. Accessed 27 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Brock, T., and Fraser, E.. ( 2018;), ‘ Is computer gaming a craft? Prehension, practice, and puzzle-solving in gaming labour. ’, Information, Communication & Society, 21:9, pp. 121933, http://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1468920. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  4. de Castell, S., and Skardzius, K.. ( 2019;), ‘ Speaking in public: What women say about working in the video game industry. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 83647, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851078. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Castronova, E.. ( 2006), Synthetic Worlds: The Business and Culture of Online Game, Chicago:: Chicago University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Chia, A.. ( 2019;), ‘ The moral calculus of vocational passion in digital gaming. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 76777, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851079. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Consalvo, M.,, Alley, T. D.,, Dutton, N.,, Falk, M.,, Fisher, H., and Yulish, A.. ( 2010;), ‘ Where’s my montage? The performance of hard work and its reward in film, television, and MMOGs. ’, Games and Culture, 5:4, pp. 381402, https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1555412009360413. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  8. De Paoli, S.. ( 2013;), ‘ Automatic-play and player deskilling in MMORPGs. ’, Game Studies, 13:1, http://gamestudies.org/1301/articles/depaoli_automatic_play. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Dibbell, J.. ( 2006), Play Money: Or, How I Quit My Day Job and Made Millions Trading Virtual Loot, New York:: Basic Books;.
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Dovey, J., and Kennedy, H. W.. ( 2006), Game Cultures: Computer Games as New Media, Maidenhead:: Open University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Dutton, F.. ( 2012;), ‘ The Witcher 2 sales top 1.7 million. ’, Eurogamer, 30 May, http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2012-05-30-the-witcher-2-sales-top-1-7-million. Accessed 27 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Dworkin, G.. ( 1988), The Theory and Practice of Autonomy, Cambridge:: Cambridge University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Frank, A.. ( 2016;), ‘ Stardew Valley tops a million copies sold, two months after launch. ’, Polygon, 13 April, https://www.polygon.com/2016/4/13/11423844/stardew-valley-sales-one-million-copies. Accessed 27 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Fron, J.,, Fullerton, T.,, Morie, J. F., and Pearce, C.. ( 2007;), ‘ Playing dress-up: Costumes, roleplay, and imagination. ’, in Philosophy of Computer Games, 24–27 January, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia;, Italy:, pp. 123.
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Giddings, S.. ( 2009;), ‘ Events and collusions: A glossary for the microethnography of video game play. ’, Games and Culture, 4:2, pp. 14457.
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Goldfarb, A.. ( 2013;), ‘ GTA 5 sales hit $1 billion in 3 days. ’, IGN, 20 September, http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/09/20/gta-5-sales-hit-1-billion-in-three-days. Accessed 27 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Harvey, A.. ( 2019;), ‘ Becoming gamesworkers: Diversity, higher education, and the future of the game industry. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 75666, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851080. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Huizinga, J.. ( 1950), Homo Ludens, Boston:: Beacon Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Humphreys, S.. ( 2005;), ‘ Productive players: Online computer games’ challenge to conventional media forms. ’, Journal of Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 2:1, pp. 3650.
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Johnson, M. R., and Mejia, R.. ( 2017;), ‘ Making science fiction real: Neoliberalism, real-life and esports in eve online. ’, Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 10:3, pp. 113, https://doi.org/10.4101/jvwr.v10i3.7256. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Klimmt, C.,, Hefner, D., and Vorderer, P.. ( 2009;), ‘ The video game experience as “true” identification: A theory of enjoyable alterations of players’ self-perception. ’, Communication Theory, 19:4, pp. 35173, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01347.x. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Kücklich, J.. ( 2005;), ‘ Precarious playbour: Modders and the digital games industry. ’, Fibreculture, 5, http://five.fibreculturejournal.org/fcj-025-precarious-playbour-modders-and-the-digital-games-industry. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Lahti, E.. ( 2017;), ‘ Stardew Valley made way more money than Call of Duty on steam, and other 2016 sales insights. ’, PC Gamer, 5 January, https://www.pcgamer.com/stardew-valley-made-way-more-money-than-call-of-duty-on-steam-and-other-2016-sales-insights. Accessed 27 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Lastowka, G.. ( 2009;), ‘ Planes of power: EverQuest as text, game and community. ’, Game Studies, 9:1, http://gamestudies.org/0901/articles/lastowka. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Nardi, B. A.. ( 2010), My Life as a Night Elf Priest: An Anthropological Account of World of Warcraft, Ann Arbor, MI:: University of Michigan Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Newman, J.. ( 2002;), ‘ The myth of the ergodic videogame: Some thoughts on player-character relationships in videogames. ’, Game Studies, 2:1, http://www.gamestudies.org/0102/newman. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Ortoleva, P.. ( 2012;), ‘ Homo ludicus: The ubiquity of play and its roles in present society. ’, GAME: The Italian Journal of Game Studies, 1, https://www.gamejournal.it/homo-ludicus-the-ubiquity-and-roles-of-play-in-present-society. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Ozimek, A. M.. ( 2019;), ‘ Outsourcing digital game production: The case of Polish testers. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 82435, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851088. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Pearce, C.. ( 2006;), ‘ Productive play: Game culture from the bottom up. ’, Games and Culture, 1:1, pp. 1724, https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1555412005281418. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  30. de Peuter, G., and Young, C. J.. ( 2019;), ‘ Contested formations of digital game labor. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 74755, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851089. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Postigo, H.. ( 2003;), ‘ From Pong to Planet Quake: Post industrial transitions from leisure to work. ’, Information, Communication and Society, 6:4, pp. 593607, https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118032000163277. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Przybylski, A. K.,, Rigby, C. S., and Ryan, R. M.. ( 2010;), ‘ A motivational model of video game engagement. ’, Review of General Psychology, 14:2, pp. 15466, https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0019440. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Purchese, R.. ( 2015;), ‘ The Witcher 3 sells 4m copies in two weeks. ’, Eurogamer, 6 September, https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2015-06-09-the-witcher-3-sells-4m-copies-in-two-weeks. Accessed 27 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Read, J.. ( 2009;), ‘ A genealogy of Homo-economicus: Neoliberalism and the production of subjectivity. ’, Foucault Studies, 6, pp. 2536, https://doi.org/10.22439/fs.v0i0.2465. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Reis, H. T.,, Sheldon, K. M.,, Gable, S. L.,, Roscoe, J., and Ryan, R. M.. ( 2000;), ‘ Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. ’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26:4, pp. 41935, https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167200266002. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Rettberg, S.. ( 2008;), ‘ Corporate ideology in World of Warcraft. ’, in H. G. Corneliussen, and J. W. Rettberg. (eds), Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader, Cambridge, MA:: MIT Press;, pp. 1938.
    [Google Scholar]
  37. de Rochefort, S.. ( 2017;), ‘ Polygon’s 2016 games of the year #8: Stardew Valley. ’, Polygon, 3 January, https://www.polygon.com/2017/1/3/14129368/stardew-valley-games-of-the-year-2016. Accessed 27 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Ronie, B.. ( 2017;), ‘ Stardew Valley review: So relaxing, so engrossing. ’, Wolf’s Gaming Blog, 29 April, https://wolfsgamingblog.com/2017/04/29/stardew-valley-review-so-relaxing-so-engrossing. Accessed 27 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Ruberg, B.. ( 2019;), ‘ The precarious labor of queer indie game-making: Who benefits from making video games “better”?. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 77888, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851090. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Ruggill, J. E.,, McAllister, K. S., and Menchaca, D.. ( 2004;), ‘ The gamework. ’, Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 1:4, pp. 297312, https://doi.org/10.1080/1479142042000270449. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Rughinis, R.. ( 2013;), ‘ Gamification for productive interaction: Reading and working with the gamification debate in education. ’, 8th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies, 19–22 June, Lisboa, Portugal, https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6615731. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Ryan, R. M.,, Rigby, C. S., and Przybylski, A.. ( 2006;), ‘ The motivational pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach. ’, Motivation and Emotion, 30:4, pp. 34460, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9051-8. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Salen, K., and Zimmerman, E.. ( 2004), The Rules of Play, Cambridge, MA:: MIT Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Skinner, B. F.. ( 1938), The Behavior of Organisms, New York:: Appleton-Century-Crofts;.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Sotamaa, O.. ( 2007;), ‘ On modder labour, commodification of play, and mod competitions. ’, First Monday, 12:9, https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v12i9.2006. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Srauy, S.. ( 2019;), ‘ Precarity and why indie game developers can’t save us from racism. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 80112, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851081. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Storey, J.,, Salaman, G., and Platman, K.. ( 2005;), ‘ Living with enterprise in an enterprise economy: Freelance and contract workers in the media. ’, Human Relations, 58:8, pp. 103354, https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0018726705058502. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Taylor, F. W.. ( 1911), The Principles of Scientific Management, New York:: Harper & Row;.
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Taylor, T. L.. ( 2006), Play between Worlds: Exploring Online Game Culture, Cambridge, MA:: MIT Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Tekinbas, K. S., and Zimmerman, E.. ( 2003), Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals, Boston:: MIT Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Weber, M.. ( 1920), The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (trans. T. Parsons), London:: Unwin University Books;.
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Weststar, J., and Legault, M. J.. ( 2019;), ‘ Building momentum for collectivity in the digital game community. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 84861, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851087. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Whitson, J. R.. ( 2019;), ‘ The new spirit of capitalism in the game industry. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 789801, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851086. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Woodcock, J., and Johnson, M. R.. ( 2019;), ‘ The affective labor and performance of live streaming on Twitch.tv. ’, Television and New Media, 20:8, pp. 81323, https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476419851077. Accessed 23 February 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Yee, N.. ( 2006;), ‘ The labor of fun: How video games blur the boundaries of work and play. ’, Games and Culture, 1:1, pp. 6871.
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Anderson, Sky LaRell, and Johnson, Mark R.. ( [2021] 2022;), ‘ Cultivation play: Video games and the labour of character progression. ’, Journal of Gaming & Virtual Worlds, 13:3, pp. 23348, https://doi.org/10.1386/jgvw_00040_1
    [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journals/10.1386/jgvw_00040_1
Loading
Keyword(s): character progression; CPTs; cultivation play; labour; video games; work

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed