Skip to content
1981
Gender Issues: Trajectories of Change in the Italian Mediascape
  • ISSN: 2047-7368
  • E-ISSN: 2047-7376

Abstract

This article examines the evolution of female images in ’s fashion advertisements over more than five decades. The aims of the article were to reconstruct the evolution of female representations over time, to detect the persistence of in women’s portrayals and to ascertain the existence, in the 2000s, of the visual regime of . To achieve these aims, a longitudinal quantitative and qualitative content analysis was carried out on 1963 ads and 2568 male and female models. The research found an evolution of women’s images over time, the decline of some traditional genderisms and a resexualization of the female portrayals in the 2000s, interlaced with the confident-appearing visual regime. What emerged was a new – a that does not eliminate gender differences or their structure of power but concentrates them in portraits of assertive and narcissistic women.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1386/jicms_00178_1
2023-01-02
2026-04-17

Metrics

Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. An, Daechun, and Kim, Sanghoon. ( 2007;), ‘ Relating Hofstede’s masculinity dimension to gender role portrayals in advertising: A cross-cultural comparison of web advertisements. ’, International Marketing Review, 24:2, pp. 181207.
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Baker, Amelia. ( 2019;), ‘ Female portrayal in life magazine ads. ’, in Gender & Sexuality: A Transnational Anthology from 1690 to 1990, Winston-Salem, NC:: Wake Forest University;, https://librarypartnerspress.pressbooks.pub/gendersexuality1e/. Accessed 31 May 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Baker, Christina N.. ( 2005;), ‘ Images of women’s sexuality in advertisements: A content analysis of Black- and white-oriented women’s and men’s magazines. ’, Sex Roles, 52:2, pp. 1327.
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Ballaster, Ros,, Beetham, Margaret,, Frazer, Elizabeth, and Hebron, Sandra. ( 1991), Women’s Worlds: Ideology, Feminity, and the Woman’s Magazine, New York:: New York University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Banet-Weiser, Sarah. ( 2018), Empowered: Popular Feminism and Popular Misogyny, Durham, NC:: Duke University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Barthel, Diane. ( 1988), Putting on Appearances, Philadelphia, PA:: Temple University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Belkaoui, Ahmed, and Belkaoui, Janice M.. ( 1976;), ‘ A comparative analysis of the roles portrayed by women in print advertisements: 1958, 1970, 1972. ’, Journal of Marketing Research, 13:2, pp. 16872.
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Belknap, Penny, and Leonard, Wilbert M.. ( 1991;), ‘ A conceptual replication and extension of Erving Goffman’s study of gender advertisements. ’, Sex Roles, 25:1, pp. 10318.
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Bell, Philip, and Milic, Marko. ( 2002;), ‘ Goffman’s gender advertisements revisited: Combining content analysis with semiotic analysis. ’, Visual Communication, 1:2, pp. 20322.
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bordo, Susan. ( 1997), Twilight Zones: The Hidden Life of Cultural Images from Plato to O.J., Berkeley, CA:: University of California Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Brunsdon, Charlotte. ( 2005;), ‘ Feminism, postfeminism, Martha, Martha and Nigella. ’, Cinema Journal, 44:1, pp. 11016.
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Budgeon, Shelley, and Currie, Dawn H.. ( 1995;), ‘ From feminism to postfeminism: Women’s liberation in fashion magazines. ’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 18:2, pp. 17386.
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Busby, Linda J., and Leichty, Greg. ( 1993;), ‘ Feminism and advertising in traditional and nontraditional women’s magazines 1950s–1980s. ’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 70:2, pp. 24764.
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Butkowski, Chelsea P., and Tajima, Atsushi. ( 2017;), ‘ A critical examination of visualized femininity: Selective inheritance and intensification of gender posing from historical painting to contemporary advertising. ’, Feminist Media Studies, 17:6, pp. 103755.
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Capecchi, Saveria. ( 2021;), ‘ Le campagne di femvertising e le reazioni delle audience online: Le contraddizioni del femminismo. ’, Rassegna Italiana di Sociologia, 52:1, pp. 13163.
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Courtney, Alice, and Whipple, Thomas. ( 1983), Sex Stereotyping in Advertising, Lexington, MA:: Lexington Books;.
    [Google Scholar]
  17. D’Amato, Francesco, and Panarese, Paola. ( 2016), Pubblicità e comunicazione integrata: Modelli, processi e contenuti, Rome:: Carocci;.
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Dejmanee, Tisha. ( 2016;), ‘ Consumption in the city: The turn to interiority in contemporary postfeminist television. ’, European Journal of Cultural Studies, 19:2, pp. 11933.
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Díaz Soloaga, Paloma, and Muñiz, Carlos. ( 2013;), ‘ Women’s portraits present in print fashion advertisements: A content analysis of Spanish fashion magazines from 2002 to 2009. ’, in A. N. Valdivia, and S. R. Mazzarella. (eds), The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies, vol. 3, Oxford:: Blackwell;, pp. 7494.
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Douglas, Susan J.. ( 1994), Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media, Harmondsworth:: Penguin;.
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Einstein, Mara. ( 2016), Black Ops Advertising: Native Ads, Content, Marketing, and the Covert World of the Digital Sell, New York:: OR Books;.
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Eisend, Martin. ( 2010;), ‘ A meta-analysis of gender roles in advertising. ’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38:4, pp. 41840.
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Faludi, Susan. ( 1991), Backlash: The Undeclared War against American Women, New York:: Crown;.
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Ferguson, Jill H.,, Kreshel, Peggy J., and Tinkham, Spencer F.. ( 1990;), ‘ In the pages of Ms.: Sex role portrayals of women in advertising. ’, Journal of Advertising, 19:1, pp. 4051.
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Furnham, Adrian, and Bitar, Nadine. ( 1993;), ‘ The stereotyped portrayal of men and women in British television advertisements. ’, Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 29:3, pp. 297310.
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Ghigi, Rossella, and Rottenberg, Catherine. ( 2019;), ‘ Feminism: Historical legacies and current challenges. ’, Rassegna Italiana di Sociologia, 4:1, pp. 65566.
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Gill, Rosalind. ( 2003;), ‘ From sexual objectification to sexual subjectification: The resexualisation of women’s bodies in the media. ’, Feminist Media Studies, 3:1, pp. 99106.
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Gill, Rosalind. ( 2007;), ‘ Postfeminist media culture: Elements of a sensibility. ’, European Journal of Cultural Studies, 10:2, pp. 14766.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Gill, Rosalind. ( 2008;), ‘ Empowerment/sexism: Figuring female sexual agency in contemporary advertising. ’, Feminism & Psychology, 18:1, pp. 3560.
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Gill, Rosalind. ( 2016;), ‘ Post-postfeminism? New feminist visibilities in postfeminist times. ’, Feminist Media Studies, 16:4, pp. 61030.
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Gill, Rosalind. ( 2017;), ‘ The affective, cultural and psychic life of postfeminism: A postfeminist sensibility 10 years on. ’, European Journal of Cultural Studies, 20:6, pp. 60626.
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Gill, Rosalind, and Orgad, Shani. ( 2015;), ‘ The confidence cult(ure). ’, Australian Feminist Studies, 30:86, pp. 32444.
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Gill, Rosalind, and Orgad, Shani. ( 2017;), ‘ Confidence culture and the remaking of feminism. ’, New Formations, 91:1, pp. 1634.
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Gill, Rosalind, and Scharff, Christina. (eds) ( 2011), New Femininities: Postfeminism, Neoliberalism and Subjectivity, Basingstoke:: Palgrave;.
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Goffman, Erving. ( 1976;), ‘ Gender advertisements. ’, Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication, 3:2, pp. 69154.
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Goffman, Erving. ( 1979), Gender Advertisements, New York:: Harper & Row;.
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Goldman, Robert. ( 1992), Reading Ads Socially, London:: Routledge;.
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Guastini, Massimo,, Cosenza, Giovanna,, Colombari, Jennifer, and Gasparri, Elisa. ( 2014), Come la pubblicità racconta le donne e gli uomini, in Italia, https://giovannacosenza.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/come-la-pubblicitacc80-racconta-gli-italiani.pdf. Accessed 30 September 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Hall, Judith A.,, Coats, Erik J., and LeBeau, Lavonia S.. ( 2005;), ‘ Nonverbal behavior and the vertical dimension of social relations: A meta-analysis. ’, Psychological Bulletin, 6:131, pp. 898924.
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Hutton, Herin, and Trautner, Mary N.. ( 2011;), ‘ Equal opportunity objectification? The sexualization of men and women on the cover of Rolling Stone. ’, Sexuality & Culture, 15:1, pp. 25678.
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Hutton, Herin, and Trautner, Mary N.. ( 2013;), ‘ Images of powerful women in the age of “choice feminism”. ’, Journal of Gender Studies, 22:1, pp. 6578.
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Jhally, Sut. ( 1987), The Codes of Advertising: Fetishism and the Political Economy of Meaning in the Consumer Society, New York:: St. Martin’s;.
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Johnson, Tayllor Blair. ( 2017;), ‘ Waves of feminism and the media. ’, BA thesis, Lexington, KY:: Lewis Honors College, https://uknowledge.uky.edu/honprog/32. Accessed 30 September 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Kang, Mee-Eun. ( 1997;), ‘ The portrayal of women’s images in magazine advertisements: Goffman’s gender analysis revisited. ’, Sex Roles, 37:11&12, pp. 97996.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Kilbourne, Jean. ( 1999), Deadly Persuasion: Why Women and Girls Must Fight the Addictive Power of Advertising, New York:: Free Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Knoll, Silke,, Eisend, Martin, and Steinhagen, Josefine. ( 2011;), ‘ Gender roles in advertising: Measuring and comparing gender stereotyping on public and private TV channels in Germany. ’, International Journal of Advertising, 30:5, pp. 86788.
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Kohrs, Kirsten, and Gill, Rosalind. ( 2021;), ‘ Confident appearing: Revisiting “gender advertisements” in contemporary culture. ’, in J. Baxter,, and J. Angouri. (eds), The Routledge Handbook of Language, Gender and Sexuality, Routledge Handbooks in Applied Linguistics, Abingdon:: Routledge;, pp. 52842.
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Krijen, Tonnie, and Van Bauwel, Sofie. ( 2015), Gender and Media: Representing, Producing, Consuming, New York:: Routledge;.
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Kuipers, Giselinde,, van der Laan, Elise, and Arfini, Elisa A. G.. ( 2016;), ‘ Gender models: Changing representations and intersecting roles in Dutch and Italian fashion magazines, 1982–2011. ’, Journal of Gender Studies, 26:6, pp. 63248.
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Lazar, Michelle M.. ( 2006;), ‘ “Discover the power of femininity!” Analyzing global “power femininity” in local advertising. ’, Feminist Media Studies, 6:4, pp. 50517.
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Lazar, Michelle M.. ( 2017;), ‘ Seriously girly fun! Recontextualising aesthetic labour as fun and play in cosmetics advertising. ’, in A. S. Elias,, R. Gill, and C. Scharff. (eds), Aesthetic Labour: Dynamics of Virtual Work, London:: Palgrave Macmillan;, pp. 5166.
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Lindner, Katharina. ( 2004;), ‘ Images of women in general interest and fashion magazine advertisements from 1955 to 2002. ’, Sex Roles, 51:7, pp. 40921.
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Luck, Emma. ( 2016;), ‘ Commodity feminism and its body: The appropriation and capitalization of body positivity through advertising. ’, Liberated Arts, 2:1, https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/lajur/vol2/iss1/4. Accessed 31 September 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Lumby, Catharine. ( 2011;), ‘ Past the post in feminist media studies. ’, Feminist Media Studies, 11:1, pp. 95100.
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Lynch, Meghan. ( 2011;), ‘ Blogging for beauty? A critical analysis of Operation Beautiful. ’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 34:6, pp. 58292.
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Mager, John, and Helgerson, James. ( 2011;), ‘ Fifty years of advertising images: Some changing perspectives on role portrayals along with enduring consistencies. ’, Sex Roles, 64:1, pp. 23852.
    [Google Scholar]
  57. McArthur, Leslie Zebrowitz, and Resko, Beth Gabrielle. ( 1975;), ‘ The portrayal of men and women in American television commercials. ’, Journal of Social Psychology, 97:2, pp. 20920.
    [Google Scholar]
  58. McLaughlin, Tara, and Goulet, Nicole. ( 1999;), ‘ Gender advertisements in magazines aimed at African-Americans: A comparison to their occurrence in magazines aimed at caucasians. ’, Sex Roles, 40:1&2, pp. 6171.
    [Google Scholar]
  59. McRobbie, Angela. ( 2004;), ‘ The rise and rise of porn chic. ’, Times Higher Education Supplement, 2 January, http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode.26&storycode.182087. Accessed 31 May 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  60. McRobbie, Angela. ( 2009), The Aftermath of Feminism: Gender, Culture and Social Change, London:: Sage Publications;.
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Murray, Dara Persis. ( 2013;), ‘ Branding “real” social change in Dove’s campaign for real beauty. ’, Feminist Media Studies, 13:1, pp. 83101.
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Nam, Kyoungtae,, Lee, Guiohk, and Hwang, Jung-Sun. ( 2011;), ‘ Gender stereotypes depicted by western and Korean advertising models in Korean adolescent girls’ magazines. ’, Sex Roles, 64:1, pp. 22337.
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Negra, Diane. ( 2014;), ‘ Claiming feminism: Commentary, autobiography and advice literature for women in the recession. ’, Journal of Gender Studies, 23:3, pp. 27586.
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Pollay, Richard. ( 1986;), ‘ The distorted mirror: Reflections on the unintended consequences of advertising. ’, Journal of Marketing, 50:2, pp. 1836.
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Pollock, Griselda. ( 1988), Vision and Difference: Femininity, Feminism, and Histories of Art, New York:: Routledge;.
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Rampton, Martha. ( 2015;), ‘ Four waves of feminism. ’, Pacific University, 25 October, https://www.pacificu.edu/magazine/four-waves-feminism. Accessed 30 September 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Reichert, Tom,, Lambiase, Jacqueline,, Morgan, Susan,, Carstarphen, Meta, and Zavoina, Susan. ( 1999;), ‘ Cheesecake and beefcake: No matter how you slice it, sexual explicitness in advertising continuous to increase. ’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 76:1, pp. 720.
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Rottenberg, Catherine. ( 2014;), ‘ The rise of neoliberal feminism. ’, Cultural Studies, 28:3, pp. 41837.
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Sassatelli, Roberta. ( 2010;), ‘ La ritualizzazione della femminilità di Erving Goffman. ’, Studi culturali, 7:1, pp. 3770.
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Schreier, Margrit. ( 2012), Qualitative Content Analysis in Practice, Thousand Oaks, CA:: Sage Publications;.
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Schroeder, Jonathan E., and Borgerson, Janet L.. ( 1998;), ‘ Marketing images of gender: A visual analysis. ’, Consumption Markets & Culture, 2:2, pp. 161201.
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Snell, Katy, and Tsai, Wan-Hsiu Sunny. ( 2017;), ‘ Beauty for Asian American women in advertising: Negotiating exoticization and Americanization to construct a bicultural identity. ’, Advertising & Society Quarterly, 18:3, https://muse.jhu.edu/article/671207. Accessed 6 November 2022.
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Snyder-Hall, R. Claire. ( 2010;), ‘ Third-wave feminism and the defense of “choice”. ’, Perspectives on Politics, 8:1, pp. 25561.
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Soley, Lawrence, and Kurzbad, Gary. ( 1986;), ‘ Sex in advertising: A comparison of 1964 and 1984 magazine advertisements. ’, Journal of Advertising, 15:3, pp. 4654.
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Tasker, Yvonne, and Negra, Diane. ( 2007), Interrogating Postfeminism: Gender and the Politics of Popular Culture, Durham, NC:: Duke University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Tsai, Wan-Hsiu Sunny,, Shata, Aya, and Tian, Shiyun. ( 2019;), ‘ En-gendering power and empowerment in advertising: A content analysis. ’, Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 42:1, pp. 1933.
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Whelehan, Imelda. ( 2010;), ‘ Remaking feminism: Or why is postfeminism so boring?. ’, Nordic Journal of English Studies, 9:3, pp. 15572.
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Wiles, Judith A.,, Wiles, Charles R., and Tjernlund, Anders. ( 1995;), ‘ A comparison of gender role portrayals in magazine advertising: The Netherlands, Sweden, and the USA. ’, European Journal of Marketing, 29:11, pp. 3549.
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Williamson, Judith. ( 1978), Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising, London:: Marion Boyars;.
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Wolf, Naomi. ( 1991), The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used against Women, New York:: W. Morrow;.
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Wolin, Lori D.. ( 2003;), ‘ Gender issues in advertising: An oversight synthesis of research: 1970–2002. ’, Journal of Advertising Research, 43:1, pp. 11129.
    [Google Scholar]
  82. World Economic Forum ( 2021), Global Gender Gap Report 2020, Geneva:: World Economic Forum;, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf. Accessed 31 May 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Panarese, Paola. ( 2023;), ‘ Sexualized female confidence: A new gender display in over 50 years of Italian fashion advertisements. ’, Journal of Italian Cinema & Media Studies, 11:2, pp. 25576, https://doi.org/10.1386/jicms_00178_1
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1386/jicms_00178_1
Loading
/content/journals/10.1386/jicms_00178_1
Loading

Data & Media loading...

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a success
Invalid data
An error occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test