Demolishing democracy: A comparative visual framing analysis

References

1. Alves, J. (2023), ‘Supporters of former President Jair Bolsonaro clash with security forces as they raid the National Congress in Brasilia, Brazil’, Getty Images, 8 January, https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/supporters-of-brazilian-former-president-jair-bolsonaro-news-photo/1246096663. Accessed 12 May 2025.
2. Araujo, G. and Brito, R. (2022), ‘Brazil arrests four people for alleged coup attempt in Bolsonaro riots’, Reuters, 29 December, https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/brazil-arrests-four-people-alleged-coup-attempt-bolsonaro-riots-2022-12-29/.
   [Google Scholar]
3. Barthes, R. (1977), Image-Music-Text (trans, S. Heath), New York: Hill and Wang.
   [Google Scholar]
4. BBC News Brasil (2023), ‘Documentário BBC | 8 de Janeiro: O dia que abalou o Brasil’ (‘BBC Documentary | January 8: The day that shook Brazil’), YouTube, 5 July, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MxciQQRUMNk. Accessed 5 August 2025.
5. Bun, A. (2021), ‘Supporters of US President Donald Trump stand next to media equipment they destroyed during a protest on January 6’, Getty Images, 6 January, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/supporters-of-us-president-donald-trump-stand-next-to-media-news-photo/1230458401?adppopup=true. Accessed 12 May 2025.
6. Buschschlüter, V. (2022), ‘Brazil protests: Bolsonaro supporters attack police HQ’, BBC News, 13 December, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-63956778. Accessed 12 May 2025.
   [Google Scholar]
7. Caiani, M. (2018), ‘Radical right cross-national links and international cooperation’, in J. Rydgren (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right, New York: Oxford University Press.
   [Google Scholar]
8. Camarotto, M. (2022), ‘As Bolsonaro emulates Trump, Brazilian journalists struggle to cover his supporters’, Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, 19 December, https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/news/bolsonaro-emulates-trump-brazilian-journalists-struggle-cover-his-supporters.
   [Google Scholar]
9. Ceneta, M. (2021), ‘Electoral College protests’, Associated Press, 6 January, https://newsroom.ap.org/editorial-photos-videos/detail?itemid=71cd72b8f0184ebaa6e4e6fc56b7a5e1&mediatype=photo. Accessed 12 May 2025.
   [Google Scholar]
10. Cherry, J. (2021), ‘Alex Jones, the founder of right-wing media group Infowars, addresses a crowd of pro-Trump protesters after they storm the grounds of the Capitol Building on January 6, 2021 in Washington, DC….’, Getty Images, 6 January, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/alex-jones-the-founder-of-right-wing-media-group-infowars-news-photo/1230457578. Accessed 12 May 2025.
11. Chiu, R. (2021), ‘Police officers detain a protester after a fight during a protest to support President Donald Trump fight in Los Angeles…’, Getty Images, 6 January, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/police-officers-detain-a-protester-after-a-fight-during-a-news-photo/. Accessed 12 May 2025.
12. Deliso, M. (2023), ‘Did the Jan. 6 attack lay the blueprint for Brazil’s insurrection?’, ABC News, 12 January, https://abcnews.go.com/International/jan-6-attack-lay-blueprint-brazils-insurrection/story?id=96312273. Accessed 12 May 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
13. Dimitrova, D. V. and Strömbäck, J. (2009), ‘Look who is talking: Use of sources in newspaper coverage in Sweden and the United States’, Journalism Practice, 3:1, pp. 75–91, https://doi.org/10.1080/17512780802560773.
    [Google Scholar]
14. Dwoskin, E. and Pessoa, G. (2022a), ‘Trump aides Bannon, Miller advising the Bolsonaros on next steps’, The Washington Post, 23 November, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/11/23/brazil-bolsonaro-bannon/. Accessed 4 July 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
15. Dwoskin, E. and Pessoa, G. (2022b), ‘Trump aides Bannon, Miller advising the Bolsonaros on next steps’, The Washington Post, 23 November, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/11/23/brazil-bolsonaro-bannon. Accessed 5 August 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
16. Entman, R. (1993), ‘Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm’, Journal of Communication, 43:4, pp. 51–58, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x.
    [Google Scholar]
17. Entman, R. (2007), ‘Framing bias: Media in the distribution of power’, Journal of Communication, 57:1, pp. 163–73, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00336.x.
    [Google Scholar]
18. Ferguson, T. S. (2013), ‘Using visual methods in social science research’, in M. Walter (ed.), Social Research Methods, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
19. France24 (2022), ‘Camps of election-den ying protesters in Brazil seen as threat ahead of Lula inauguration’, 26 December, https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20221226-terrorists-threaten-brazil-s-presidential-inauguration-incoming-justice-minister. Accessed 12 May 2025.
20. Gitlin, T. (2003), The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left, Berkeley, CA, Los Angeles, CA and London: University of California Press.
    [Google Scholar]
21. Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (2017), Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, New York: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
22. Grabe, M. E. and Bucy, E. P. (2009), Image Bite Politics: News and the Visual Framing of Elections, New York: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
23. Hertog, J. K. and McLeod, D. M. (2001), ‘A multiperspectival approach to framing analysis: A field guide’, in J. K. Hertog and D. M. McLeod (eds), Framing Public Life, New York: Routledge, pp. 157–78.
    [Google Scholar]
24. Jornal O Globo (2023), ‘Terror em Brasília: vídeos revelam como foram os atos extremistas de 8 de janeiro’ (‘Terror in Brasilia: Videos reveal how the January 8th extremists acts happened’), YouTube, 16 January, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AYRo5TxjmqE. Accessed 4 July 2025.
25. Kellerman, B. (2021), ‘Backstory: How Reuters uncovered what happened at the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 6’, Reuters, 11 January, https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-capitol-security-backstory/https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/usa-capitol-security-backstory/. Accessed 4 July 2025.
26. Khavin, D., Willis, H., Hill, E., Reneau, N., Jordan, D., Engelbrecht, C., Triebert, C., Cooper, S., Browne, M. and Botti, D. (2021), ‘Day of rage: How Trump supporters took the U.S. capitol’, New York Times, 30 June, https://www.nytimes.com/video/us/politics/100000007606996/capitol-riot-trump-supporters.html. Accessed 4 July 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
27. Krause, A. and Bucy, E. P. (2018), ‘Visual framing of fracking: How standing attitudes shape perceptions of environmental risk and economic benefit’, Environmental Communication, 12:3, pp. 322–43, https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2017.1412996.
    [Google Scholar]
28. Lemos, I. and Phillips, T. (2023), ‘Timeline: What led to the storming of Brazil’s Congress?’, CNN, 14 January, https://www.cnn.com/2023/01/14/americas/brazil-congress-riots-timeline-intl-latam/index.html. Accessed 4 July 2025.
29. Lima, E. (2023a), ‘Brasília, DF – 08.01.2023: Terrorismo antidemocrático em Brasília…’, Imago, 8 January, https://www.imago-images.de/st/0198464240. Accessed 16 June 2025.
30. Lima, S. (2023b), ‘Supporters of Brazilian former President Jair Bolsonaro invade the National Congress in Brasilia...’, Getty Images, 8 January, https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/supporters-of-brazilian-former-president-jair-bolsonaro-news-photo/1246096663?adppopup=true. Accessed 16 June 2025.
31. Lima, S. (2023c), Getty Images, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/members-of-the-federal-legislative-police-stand-next-a-news-photo/1246096600. Accessed 12 May 2025.
32. Lima, S. (2023d), ‘Supporters of Brazilian former President Jair Bolsonaro assist a Military Police officer during clashes after an invasion to Planalto Presidential Palace in Brasilia’, Getty Images, 8 January, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/supporters-of-brazilian-former-president-jair-bolsonaro-news-photo/1246096226. Accessed 12 May 2025.
33. Lima, S. (2023e), ‘Supporters of Brazilian former President Jair Bolsonaro assist a Military Police officer during clashes after an invasion to Planalto Presidential Palace in Brasilia’, Getty Images, 8 January, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/supporters-of-brazilian-former-president-jair-bolsonaro-news-photo/1246096235. Accessed 12 May 2025.
34. Loeb, S. (2021b), Getty Images, 6 January, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/supporters-of-us-president-donald-trump-including-jake-news-photo/1230468102. Accessed 12 May 2025.
35. Machado, A. (2023), Reuters Connect, 8 January, https://www.reutersconnect.com/detail?id=tag%3Areuters.com%2C2023%3Anewsml_RC2IMY929J9U&share=true. Accessed 12 May 2025.
36. Marcelino, U. (2023), Reuters Connect, 8 January, https://www.reutersconnect.com/item/supporters-of-brazils-former-president-jair-bolsonaro-demonstrate-against-president-luiz-inacio-lula-da-silva-in-brasilia/dGFnOnJldXRlcnMuY29tLDIwMjM6bmV3c21sX1JDMktNWTlFMjlHTQ. Accessed 12 May 2025.
37. Martin, J. (2021), Associated Press, 6 January, https://newsroom.ap.org/editorial-photos-videos/. Accessed 4 July 2025.
38. McGraw, M. (2023), ‘Bannon pushed Brazil’s election lies before insurrection’, Politico, 9 January, https://www.politico.com/news/2023/01/09/bannon-brazil-riots-trump-00077155. Accessed 4 July 2025.
39. McSwiney, J., Vaughan, M., Heft, A. and Hoffmann, M. (2021), ‘Sharing the hate? Memes and transnationality in the far right’s digital visual culture’, Information, Communication & Society, 24:16, pp. 2502–21, https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2021.1961006.
    [Google Scholar]
40. Medeiros, T. (2022), ‘Moraes nega pedido do PL para anular 2º turno e aplica multa de R$ 22,9 milhões’ (‘Moraes denies PL request to null 2nd round and imposes 22.9 million fine’), Correio Braziliense, 21 November, https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/politica/2022/11/5054044-moraes-nega-pedido-do-pl-para-anular-2-turno-e-aplica-multa-de-rs-229-milhoes.html. Accessed 4 July 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
41. MercoPress (2023), ‘Brazil: No secrecy on Jan. 8 riots footage, De Moraes rules’, MercoPress, 22 April, https://en.mercopress.com/2023/04/22/brazil-no-secrecy-on-jan.-8-riots-footage-de-moraes-rules. Accessed 4 July 2025.
42. Millis, L. (2021a), ‘An explosion caused by a police munition is seen while supporters of President Donald Trump riot in front of the U.S. Capitol Building’, Reuters Connect, 6 January, https://www.reuters.com/pictures/defining-images-jan-6th-capitol-attack-2024-01-05/LDFMSPUH65JIPJIAHDOMVOIE4Q/. Accessed 12 May 2025.
43. Millis, L. (2021b), ‘Supporters of U.S. President Donald Trump gather in front of the U.S. Capitol Building in Washington…’, Reuters Connect, 6 January, https://www.reutersconnect.com/item/supporters-of-us-president-donald-trump-gather-in-washington/dGFnOnJldXRlcnMuY29tLDIwMjE6bmV3c21sX1JDMkgyTDlBUERPSw%3D%3D. Accessed 12 May 2025.
44. Minchillo, J. (2021), ‘Capitol siege Nevada arrests charges’, Associated Press, 6 January, https://newsroom.ap.org/editorial-photos-videos/detail?itemid=25e0d0bcdb47469b92ff261977b71a9b&mediatype=photo. Accessed 12 May 2025.
45. Molina, T. (2023a), Associated Press, 8 January, https://newsroom.ap.org/editorial-photos-videos/detail?itemid=22a68bb0b8ae495593c2103d2ee6d85b&mediatype=photo. Accessed 12 May 2025.
46. Molina, T. (2023b), Associated Press, 8 January, https://newsroom.ap.org/editorial-photos-videos/detail?itemid=85aaa8f50227453aab0a1be560eb6d64&mediatype=photo. Accessed 12 May 2025.
47. Nicas, J., Milhorance, F. and Ionova, A. (2022), ‘How Bolsonaro built the myth of stolen elections in Brazil’, New York Times, 25 October, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/10/25/world/americas/brazil-bolsonaro-misinformation.html. Accessed 4 July 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
48. Nicas, J. and Spigariol, A. (2023), ‘Lula becomes Brazil’s president, with Bolsonaro in Florida’, New York Times, 1 January, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/01/world/americas/bolsonaro-florida-brazil.html?searchResultPosition=4. Accessed 12 May 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
49. Nurphoto (2021), Getty Images, 8 January, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/trump-supporters-near-the-us-capitol-following-a-quot-stop-news-photo/1230475954. Accessed 12 May 2025.
50. Paz and Costa (2022), ‘Eu me recolhi, diz Bolsonaro sobre protestos em frente a quarteis’ (‘I collected myself, says Bolsonaro about protests in front of military headquarters’), Metropoles, 31 December, https://www.metropoles.com/brasil/politica-brasil/eu-me-recolhi-diz-bolsonaro-sobre-protestos-em-frente-a-quarteis. Accessed 4 July 2025.
51. Peres, E. (2023), Associated Press, 8 January, https://newsroom.ap.org/editorial-photos-videos/detail?itemid=2ab88cd3adf54222a53e744c7cd16555&mediatype=photo. Accessed 12 May 2025.
52. Petric, M. (2024), ‘“Keeping their shift together”: An exploratory visual analysis of a Brazilian crowd crime’, Journal of Visual Political Communication, 11:1, pp. 77–104, https://doi.org/10.1386/jvpc_00035_1.
    [Google Scholar]
53. Phillips, T. (2023), ‘“They were in ecstasy”: How Bolsonaro mob’s orgy of violence rocked Brasília’, The Guardian, 9 January, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/09/brazil-riot-palace-attack-bolsonaro-far-right-supporters-lula. Accessed 12 May 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
54. Pinheiro-Machado, R. and Vargas-Maia, T. (eds) (2023), The Rise of the Radical Right in the Global South, Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
55. Prezioso, J. (2021), Getty Images, 6 January, https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-holds-a-large-wooden-cross-near-the-washington-monument-news-photo/1230458524?adppopup=true. Accessed 12 May 2025.
56. Rodriguez, L. and Dimitrova, D. (2011), ‘The levels of visual framing’, Journal of Visual Literacy, 30:1, pp. 48–65, https://doi-org.lib-e2.lib.ttu.edu/10.1080/23796529.2011.11674684.
    [Google Scholar]
57. Sá Pessoa, G. and Schmidt, S. (2023), ‘Lula sworn in as Brazil’s president; Bolsonaro skips inauguration’, The Washington Post, 1 January, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/01/lula-inauguration-security-brazil/. Accessed 12 May 2025.
    [Google Scholar]
58. Strömbäck, J. and Aalberg, T. (2008), ‘Election news coverage in democratic corporatist countries: A comparative study of Sweden and Norway’, Scandinavian Political Studies, 31:1, pp. 91–106, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2008.00197.x.
    [Google Scholar]
59. Strömbäck, J. and Dimitrova, D. V. (2006), ‘Political and media systems matter: A comparison of election news coverage in Sweden and the United States’, Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 11:4, pp. 131–47.
    [Google Scholar]
60. Strömbäck, J. and Van Aelst, P. (2010), ‘Exploring some antecedents of the media’s framing of election news: A comparison of Swedish and Belgian election news’, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 15:1, pp. 41–59, https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161209351004.
    [Google Scholar]
61. Surette, R. (2013), ‘Cause or catalyst: The interaction of real world and media crime models’, American Journal of Criminal Justice, 38:3, pp. 392–409, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-012-9177-z.
    [Google Scholar]
62. The Yogi Berra Museum & Learning Center n.d., ‘Yogi-isms’, https://yogiberramuseum.org/about-yogi/yogisms/. Accessed 12 May 2025.