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References

  1. Bagley, Richard J. and Farmer, J. Doyne (1992), ‘Spontaneous emergence of a metabolism’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 93–140.
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  2. Bealer, George (1987), ‘The philosophical limits of scientific essentialism’, in J. Tomberlin (ed.), Philosophical Perspectives, Atascadero, CA: Ridgeway, pp. 289–365.
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  3. Bedau, Mark A. (1991), ‘Can biological teleology be naturalized?’, The Journal of Philosophy, 88, pp. 647–55.
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  4. Bedau, Mark A. (1996), ‘The nature of life’, in M. Boden (ed.), The Philosophy of Artificial Life, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 332–57.
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  5. Bedau, Mark A. (1997), ‘Weak emergence’, in J. Tomberlin (ed.), Philosophical Perspectives: Mind, Causation, and World, vol. 11, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 375–99.
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  6. Bedau, Mark A. (1998), ‘Four puzzles about life’, Artificial Life, 4, pp. 125–40.
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  7. Bedau, Mark A. (1999), ‘Supple laws in biology and psychology’, in V. Hardcastle (ed.), Where Biology Meets Psychology: Philosophical Essays, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 287–302.
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  8. Bedau, Mark A. (2003a), ‘Artificial life: Organization, adaptation, and complexity from the bottom up’, Trends in Cognitive Science, 7:11, November, pp. 505–12.
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  9. Bedau, Mark A. (2003b), ‘Downward causation and autonomy in weak emergence’, Principia Revista Inernacional de Epistemologica, 6:1, pp. 5–50.
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  10. Bedau, Mark A. and Cleland, Carol E. (2010), The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy and Science, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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  11. Beer, Randall D. (1990), Intelligence as Adaptive Behavior: An Experiment in Computational Neuroethology, Boston, MA: Academic Press.
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  12. Benner, Steven A , Ricardo, Alonso and Carrigan, Matthew A. (2004), ‘Is there a common chemical model for life in the universe?’, Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 8, pp. 679–89.
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  13. Boden, Margaret A. (1999), ‘Is metabolism necessary?’, British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 50, pp. 231–48.
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  14. Brent, Roger (2004), ‘A partnership between biology and engineering’, Nature Biotechnology, 22:10, pp. 1211–14.
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  15. Brooks, Rodney (2002), Flesh and Machines: How Robots Will Change Us, New York: Pantheon.
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  17. Cho, Mildred K. , Magnus, David , Caplan, Arthur L. , McGee, Daniel and The Ethics of Genomics Group (1999), ‘Ethical considerations in synthesizing a minimal genome’, Science, 286:5447, pp. 2087–90.
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  18. Clark, Andy (1997), Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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  19. Cleland, Carol E. and Chyba, Christopher F. (2002), ‘Defining “life”’, Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere, 32, pp. 387–93.
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  20. Crick, Francis (1981), Life Itself: Its Origin and Nature, New York: Simon & Schuster.
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  21. Dennett, Daniel C. (1995), Darwin's Dangerous Idea, New York: Simon & Schuster.
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  22. Dennett, Daniel C. (1997), Kinds of Minds: Towards an Understanding of Consciousness, New York: Basic Books.
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  23. Dyson, Freeman (1999), Origins of Life, 2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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  24. Eigen, Manfred ([1857] 1992), Steps Toward Life: A Perspective on Evolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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  25. Emmeche, Claus (1992), ‘Life as an abstract phenomenon: Is artificial life possible?’, in F. Varela and P. Bourgine (eds), Towards a Practice of Autonomous System, Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books and MIT Press, pp. 466–74.
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  26. Emmeche, Claus (1994), The Garden in the Machine: The Emerging Science of Artificial Life, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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  27. Farmer, J. Doyne and Belin, Alletta d'A (1992), ‘Artificial life: The coming evolution’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 815–40.
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  28. Gánti, Tibor (2003), The Principles of Life, with a commentary by James Grisemer and Eörs Szathmáry, New York: Oxford University Press.
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  29. Gibbs, W. Wayt (2004), ‘Synthetic life’, Scientific American, 290:5 (April), pp. 75–81.
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  30. Godfrey-Smith, Peter (1994), ‘Spencer and Dewey on life and mind’, in R. Brooks and P. Maes (eds), Artificial Life IV, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press and Bradford Books, pp. 80–89.
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  31. Hutchison III, Clyde A. , Peterson, Scott N. , Gill, Steven R. , Cline, Robin T. , White, Owen , Fraser, Claire M. , Smith, Hamilton O. and Venter, J. Craig (1999), ‘Global transposon mutagenesis and a minimal Mycoplasma genome’, Science, 286:5447 (10 December), pp. 2165–69.
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  32. Keller, Evelyn Fox (2002), Making Sense of Life: Explaining Biological Development with Models, Metaphors, and Machines, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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  33. Kim, Jaegwon (1999), ‘Making sense of emergence’, Philosophical Studies, 95, pp. 3–36.
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  34. Kripke, Saul (1980), Naming and Necessity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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  35. Langton, Christopher G. (ed.) (1989), Artificial Life, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 1–47.
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  36. Lipson, Hod and Pollack, Jordan (2000), ‘Automatic design and manufacture of robotic lifeforms’, Nature, 406:6799 (31 August) pp. 974–78.
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  37. Luisi, Pier Luigi (1998), ‘About various definitions of life’, Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere, 28, pp. 613–22.60
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  38. Luisi, Pier Luigi ([2006] 2016), The Emergence of Life: From Chemical Origins to Synthetic Biology, 2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Margulis, Lynn and Sagan, Dorion (1995), What is Life?, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Maturana, Humberto R. and Varela, Francisco J. ([1987] 1992), The Tree of Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human Understanding, 2nd ed., Boston, MA: Shambhala.
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  41. Maynard Smith, John (1975), The Theory of Evolution, 3rd ed., New York: Penguin.
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  42. Maynard Smith, John (1986), The Problems of Biology, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Maynard Smith, John (1992), ‘Byte-sized evolution’, Nature, 355:6363, pp. 772–73.
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  44. Mayr, Ernst (1982), The Growth of Biological Thought, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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  45. Mayr, Ernst (1997), ‘What is the meaning of “life”?’, in This is Biology: The Science of the Living World, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 1–23.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Morowitz, Harold J. (1992), Beginnings of Cellular Life: Metabolism Recapitulates Biogenesis, New Haven, NJ: Yale University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Olson, Eric T. (1997), ‘The ontological basis of strong artificial life’, Artificial Life, 3:1, pp. 29–39.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Oparin, Aleksandr Ivanovich (1964), Life: Its Nature, Origin, and Development (trans. A. Synge), New York: Academic Press.
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  49. Pace, Norman R. (2001), ‘The universal nature of biochemistry’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 98:3, pp. 805–08.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Pattee, Howard H. (1989), ‘Simulations, realization, and theories of life’, in C. Langton (ed.), Artificial Life, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 63–78.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Pennock, Robert T. (2001), Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological and Scientific Perspectives, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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  52. Rasmussen, Steen , Bedau, Mark A. , Chen, Liaohai , Deamer, David , Krakauer, David C. , Packard, Norman H. and Stadler, Peter F. (eds) (2007), Protocells: Bridging Nonliving and Living Matter, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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  53. Rasmussen, Steen , Chen, Liaohai , Deamer, David , Krakauer, David C. , Packard, Norman H. , Stadler, Peter F. and Bedau, Mark A. (2004), ‘Transitions from nonliving to living matter’, Science, 303:5660, pp. 963–65.
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Ray, Tom (1992), ‘An approach to the synthesis of life’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 371–408.
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  55. Schrödinger, Erwin ([1944] 1969), What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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  56. Shapiro, Robert (1986), Origins: A Skeptic's Guide to the Creation of Life on Earth, New York: Summit Books.
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  57. Sober, Elliot (1992), ‘Learning from functionalism – Prospects for strong artificial life’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 749–65.61
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  58. Szostak, Jack W. , Bartel , David P. and Luisi, Pier Luigi (2001), ‘Synthesizing life’, Nature, 409 (18 January), pp. 387–90.
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Taylor, Charles (1992), ‘“Fleshing out” artificial life II’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 25–38.
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  60. Varela, Francisco J. , Maturana , Humberto R. and Uribe, Ricardo B. (1974), ‘Autopoiesis: The organization of living systems, its characterization and a model’, Biosystems, 5, pp. 187–96.
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Wimsatt, William C. (1987), ‘False models as means to truer theories’, in M. Niteckiand and A. Hoffman (eds), Neutral Modes in Biology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 23–55.
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  62. Zimmer, Carl (2003), ‘Tinker, tailor: Can Venter stitch together a genome from scratch?’, Science, 299 (14 February), pp. 1006–07.
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References

  1. Bagley, Richard J. and Farmer, J. Doyne (1992), ‘Spontaneous emergence of a metabolism’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 93–140.
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Bealer, George (1987), ‘The philosophical limits of scientific essentialism’, in J. Tomberlin (ed.), Philosophical Perspectives, Atascadero, CA: Ridgeway, pp. 289–365.
     [Google Scholar]
  3. Bedau, Mark A. (1991), ‘Can biological teleology be naturalized?’, The Journal of Philosophy, 88, pp. 647–55.
     [Google Scholar]
  4. Bedau, Mark A. (1996), ‘The nature of life’, in M. Boden (ed.), The Philosophy of Artificial Life, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 332–57.
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Bedau, Mark A. (1997), ‘Weak emergence’, in J. Tomberlin (ed.), Philosophical Perspectives: Mind, Causation, and World, vol. 11, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 375–99.
     [Google Scholar]
  6. Bedau, Mark A. (1998), ‘Four puzzles about life’, Artificial Life, 4, pp. 125–40.
     [Google Scholar]
  7. Bedau, Mark A. (1999), ‘Supple laws in biology and psychology’, in V. Hardcastle (ed.), Where Biology Meets Psychology: Philosophical Essays, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 287–302.
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bedau, Mark A. (2003a), ‘Artificial life: Organization, adaptation, and complexity from the bottom up’, Trends in Cognitive Science, 7:11, November, pp. 505–12.
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Bedau, Mark A. (2003b), ‘Downward causation and autonomy in weak emergence’, Principia Revista Inernacional de Epistemologica, 6:1, pp. 5–50.
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Bedau, Mark A. and Cleland, Carol E. (2010), The Nature of Life: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives from Philosophy and Science, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Beer, Randall D. (1990), Intelligence as Adaptive Behavior: An Experiment in Computational Neuroethology, Boston, MA: Academic Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  12. Benner, Steven A , Ricardo, Alonso and Carrigan, Matthew A. (2004), ‘Is there a common chemical model for life in the universe?’, Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 8, pp. 679–89.
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Boden, Margaret A. (1999), ‘Is metabolism necessary?’, British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 50, pp. 231–48.
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Brent, Roger (2004), ‘A partnership between biology and engineering’, Nature Biotechnology, 22:10, pp. 1211–14.
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Brooks, Rodney (2002), Flesh and Machines: How Robots Will Change Us, New York: Pantheon.
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Cairns-Smith, Graham (1985), Seven Clues to the Origin of Life, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.59
     [Google Scholar]
  17. Cho, Mildred K. , Magnus, David , Caplan, Arthur L. , McGee, Daniel and The Ethics of Genomics Group (1999), ‘Ethical considerations in synthesizing a minimal genome’, Science, 286:5447, pp. 2087–90.
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Clark, Andy (1997), Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Cleland, Carol E. and Chyba, Christopher F. (2002), ‘Defining “life”’, Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere, 32, pp. 387–93.
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Crick, Francis (1981), Life Itself: Its Origin and Nature, New York: Simon & Schuster.
     [Google Scholar]
  21. Dennett, Daniel C. (1995), Darwin's Dangerous Idea, New York: Simon & Schuster.
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Dennett, Daniel C. (1997), Kinds of Minds: Towards an Understanding of Consciousness, New York: Basic Books.
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Dyson, Freeman (1999), Origins of Life, 2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Eigen, Manfred ([1857] 1992), Steps Toward Life: A Perspective on Evolution, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  25. Emmeche, Claus (1992), ‘Life as an abstract phenomenon: Is artificial life possible?’, in F. Varela and P. Bourgine (eds), Towards a Practice of Autonomous System, Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books and MIT Press, pp. 466–74.
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Emmeche, Claus (1994), The Garden in the Machine: The Emerging Science of Artificial Life, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Farmer, J. Doyne and Belin, Alletta d'A (1992), ‘Artificial life: The coming evolution’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 815–40.
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Gánti, Tibor (2003), The Principles of Life, with a commentary by James Grisemer and Eörs Szathmáry, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Gibbs, W. Wayt (2004), ‘Synthetic life’, Scientific American, 290:5 (April), pp. 75–81.
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Godfrey-Smith, Peter (1994), ‘Spencer and Dewey on life and mind’, in R. Brooks and P. Maes (eds), Artificial Life IV, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press and Bradford Books, pp. 80–89.
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Hutchison III, Clyde A. , Peterson, Scott N. , Gill, Steven R. , Cline, Robin T. , White, Owen , Fraser, Claire M. , Smith, Hamilton O. and Venter, J. Craig (1999), ‘Global transposon mutagenesis and a minimal Mycoplasma genome’, Science, 286:5447 (10 December), pp. 2165–69.
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Keller, Evelyn Fox (2002), Making Sense of Life: Explaining Biological Development with Models, Metaphors, and Machines, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Kim, Jaegwon (1999), ‘Making sense of emergence’, Philosophical Studies, 95, pp. 3–36.
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Kripke, Saul (1980), Naming and Necessity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Langton, Christopher G. (ed.) (1989), Artificial Life, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 1–47.
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Lipson, Hod and Pollack, Jordan (2000), ‘Automatic design and manufacture of robotic lifeforms’, Nature, 406:6799 (31 August) pp. 974–78.
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Luisi, Pier Luigi (1998), ‘About various definitions of life’, Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere, 28, pp. 613–22.60
     [Google Scholar]
  38. Luisi, Pier Luigi ([2006] 2016), The Emergence of Life: From Chemical Origins to Synthetic Biology, 2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Margulis, Lynn and Sagan, Dorion (1995), What is Life?, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Maturana, Humberto R. and Varela, Francisco J. ([1987] 1992), The Tree of Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human Understanding, 2nd ed., Boston, MA: Shambhala.
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Maynard Smith, John (1975), The Theory of Evolution, 3rd ed., New York: Penguin.
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Maynard Smith, John (1986), The Problems of Biology, New York: Oxford University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  43. Maynard Smith, John (1992), ‘Byte-sized evolution’, Nature, 355:6363, pp. 772–73.
     [Google Scholar]
  44. Mayr, Ernst (1982), The Growth of Biological Thought, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Mayr, Ernst (1997), ‘What is the meaning of “life”?’, in This is Biology: The Science of the Living World, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 1–23.
     [Google Scholar]
  46. Morowitz, Harold J. (1992), Beginnings of Cellular Life: Metabolism Recapitulates Biogenesis, New Haven, NJ: Yale University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  47. Olson, Eric T. (1997), ‘The ontological basis of strong artificial life’, Artificial Life, 3:1, pp. 29–39.
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Oparin, Aleksandr Ivanovich (1964), Life: Its Nature, Origin, and Development (trans. A. Synge), New York: Academic Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Pace, Norman R. (2001), ‘The universal nature of biochemistry’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 98:3, pp. 805–08.
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Pattee, Howard H. (1989), ‘Simulations, realization, and theories of life’, in C. Langton (ed.), Artificial Life, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 63–78.
     [Google Scholar]
  51. Pennock, Robert T. (2001), Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological and Scientific Perspectives, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Rasmussen, Steen , Bedau, Mark A. , Chen, Liaohai , Deamer, David , Krakauer, David C. , Packard, Norman H. and Stadler, Peter F. (eds) (2007), Protocells: Bridging Nonliving and Living Matter, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Rasmussen, Steen , Chen, Liaohai , Deamer, David , Krakauer, David C. , Packard, Norman H. , Stadler, Peter F. and Bedau, Mark A. (2004), ‘Transitions from nonliving to living matter’, Science, 303:5660, pp. 963–65.
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Ray, Tom (1992), ‘An approach to the synthesis of life’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 371–408.
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Schrödinger, Erwin ([1944] 1969), What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Shapiro, Robert (1986), Origins: A Skeptic's Guide to the Creation of Life on Earth, New York: Summit Books.
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Sober, Elliot (1992), ‘Learning from functionalism – Prospects for strong artificial life’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 749–65.61
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Szostak, Jack W. , Bartel , David P. and Luisi, Pier Luigi (2001), ‘Synthesizing life’, Nature, 409 (18 January), pp. 387–90.
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Taylor, Charles (1992), ‘“Fleshing out” artificial life II’, in C. Langton , C. Taylor , J. D. Farmer and S. Rasmussen (eds), Artificial Life II, Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 25–38.
     [Google Scholar]
  60. Varela, Francisco J. , Maturana , Humberto R. and Uribe, Ricardo B. (1974), ‘Autopoiesis: The organization of living systems, its characterization and a model’, Biosystems, 5, pp. 187–96.
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Wimsatt, William C. (1987), ‘False models as means to truer theories’, in M. Niteckiand and A. Hoffman (eds), Neutral Modes in Biology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 23–55.
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Zimmer, Carl (2003), ‘Tinker, tailor: Can Venter stitch together a genome from scratch?’, Science, 299 (14 February), pp. 1006–07.
     [Google Scholar]

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