Online news framing of police and protesters in Europe: Press treatment of street demonstrations in London, Athens and Barcelona (2020–21)

References

1. Amnesty International (2017), ‘Spain: Excessive use of force by National Police and Civil Guard in Catalonia’, 3 October, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/10/spain-excessive-use-of-force-by-national-police-and-civil-guard-in-catalonia/. Accessed 9 May 2021.
2. Amnesty International (2021), ‘United Kingdom’, in Amnesty International Report 2020/21: The State of the World’s Human Rights, London: Amnesty International, pp. 378–82, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol10/3202/2021/en/. Accessed 7 March 2024.
   [Google Scholar]
3. Arora, M., Phoenix, D. L. P. and Delshad, A. (2018), ‘Framing police and protesters: Assessing volume and framing of news coverage post-Ferguson, and corresponding impacts on legislative activity’, Politics, Groups, and Identities, 7:1, pp. 151–64, https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1518782.
   [Google Scholar]
4. Baranauskas, A. J. (2022), ‘News media and public attitudes toward the protests of 2020: An examination of the mediating role of perceived protester violence’, Criminology & Public Policy, 21:1, pp. 107–23.
   [Google Scholar]
5. Boykoff, J. (2007), ‘Limiting dissent: The mechanisms of state repression in the USA’, Social Movement Studies, 6:3, pp. 281–310, https://doi.org/10.1080/14742830701666988.
   [Google Scholar]
6. Boyle, M. P., McLeod, D. M. and Armstrong, C. L. (2012), ‘Adherence to the protest paradigm: The influence of protest goals and tactics on news coverage in U.S. and international newspapers’, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 17:2, pp. 127–44, https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161211433837.
   [Google Scholar]
7. Brown, D. K. (2021), ‘Police violence and protests: Digital media maintenance of racism, protest repression, and the status quo’, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 65:1, pp. 157–76, https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2021.1897821.
   [Google Scholar]
8. Brown, D. K. and Harlow, S. (2019), ‘Protests, media coverage, and a hierarchy of social struggle’, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 24:4, pp. 508–30, https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161219853517.
   [Google Scholar]
9. Carragee, K. M. and Roefs, W. (2004), ‘The neglect of power in recent framing research’, Journal of Communication, 52:2, pp. 214–33, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2004.tb02625.x.
   [Google Scholar]
10. Chan, W. W. L. (2015), ‘The media representations of police image: Research notes on the Hong Kong’s occupy movement’, Sage Open, 5:3, https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015607935.
    [Google Scholar]
11. Chan, J. M. and Lee, C. C. (1984), ‘Journalistic “paradigms” of civil protests: A case study of Hong Kong’, in A. Arno and W. Dissanayake (eds), The News Media in National and International Conflict, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 183–202.
    [Google Scholar]
12. Chang, H. C. H., Richardson, A. and Ferrara, E. (2022), ‘#JusticeforGeorgeFloyd: How Instagram facilitated the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests’, PLoS ONE, 17:12, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277864.
    [Google Scholar]
13. Chermak, S. and Weiss, A. (2005), ‘Maintaining legitimacy using external communication strategies: An analysis of police-media relations’, Journal of Criminal Justice, 33:5, pp. 501–12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2005.06.001.
    [Google Scholar]
14. Dijk, T. A. van (2000), ‘New(s) racism: A discourse analytical approach’, in S. Cottle (ed.), Ethnic Minorities and the Media, Milton Keynes: Open University Press, pp. 33–49.
    [Google Scholar]
15. Entman, R. (1993), ‘Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm’, Journal of Communication, 43:4, pp. 51–58, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x.
    [Google Scholar]
16. Entman, R. (2007), ‘Framing bias: Media in the distribution of power’, Journal of Communication, 57:1, pp. 163–73.
    [Google Scholar]
17. Fairclough, N. (1992), ‘A social theory of discourse’, in Discourse and Social Change, Cambridge and Boston, MA: Polity Press, pp. 62–100.
    [Google Scholar]
18. Fowler, R. (1991), ‘Ideological roles of the press’, in Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the Press, New York: Routledge, pp. 120–24.
    [Google Scholar]
19. Fridkin, K., Wintersieck, A., Courey, J. and Thompson, J. (2017), ‘Race and police brutality: The importance of media framing’, International Journal of Communication, 11, pp. 3394–414, https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/6950/2117. Accessed 14 May 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
20. Goffman, E. (1974), ‘Primary frameworks’, in Frame Analysis, Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press Edition, pp. 21–40.
    [Google Scholar]
21. Gramsci, A. (1971), Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci, New York: International Publishers.
    [Google Scholar]
22. Gramsci, A. (2001), ‘(i) History of the Subaltern Classes; (ii) The Concept of “Ideology”; (iii) Cultural Themes: Ideological Material’, in M. G. Durham and D. M. Kellner (eds), Media and Culture Studies: Keywords, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 13–17.
    [Google Scholar]
23. Gregorio, M. Di, Price, S. H., Saunders, C. E. and Brockhaus, M. (2012), Code Book for the Analysis of Media Frames in Articles on REDD, Bogor: CIFOR.
    [Google Scholar]
24. Gunther, R., Montero, R. J. and Wert, J. I. (1999), ‘The media and politics in Spain: From dictatorship to democracy’, Institut de Ciències Polítiques i Socials, 78, pp. 1–46.
    [Google Scholar]
25. Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J. and Roberts, B. (1978), ‘The social production of news’, in Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State and Law and Order, London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 51–77.
    [Google Scholar]
26. Hallin, D. and Mancini, P. (2004), Comparing Media Systems, New York: Cambridge University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
27. Harlow, S. and Bachmann, I. (2023), ‘Police, violence, and the “logic of damage”: Comparing U.S. and Chilean media portrayals of protests’, Mass Communication and Society, pp. 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2023.2186247.
    [Google Scholar]
28. Hess, F. L. (2018), ‘Crisis and the changes in the mediascape: Greece and the globe’, in E. Doxiadis and A. Placas (eds), Living Under Austerity: Greek Society in Crisis, New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, pp. 143–60.
    [Google Scholar]
29. Higgins, K. (2020), ‘Why police violence is a media problem’, Media@LSE blog, 9 June, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/medialse/2020/06/09/why-police-violence-is-a-media-problem. Accessed 20 April 2021.
30. Huitsing, Mc K. (2020a), ‘Daily Telegraph (UK)’, Media Bias/Fact Check, 6 May, https://mediabiasfactcheck.com/daily-telegraph/. Accessed 9 May 2021.
31. Huitsing, Mc K. (2020b), ‘El País’, Media Bias/Fact Check, 6 December, https://mediabiasfactcheck.com/el-pais/. Accessed 9 May 2021.
32. Kilgo, D. K. and Harlow, S. (2019), ‘Protests, media coverage, and a hierarchy of social struggle’, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 24:4, pp. 508–30, https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161219853517.
    [Google Scholar]
33. Krippendorff, K. (2004), ‘Conceptual foundation’, in Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 18–39.
    [Google Scholar]
34. Lawrence, R. G. (2000), The Politics of Force: Media and the Construction of Police Brutality, Berkeley, CA: University California Press.
    [Google Scholar]
35. Lee, F. L. F. (2014), ‘Triggering the protest paradigm: Examining factors affecting news coverage of protests’, International Journal of Communication, 8, pp. 2725–46, https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/2873/121. Accessed 9 May 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
36. Marques, F. P. J. and Mont’Alverne, C. (2019), ‘What are newspaper editorials interested in? Understanding the idea of criteria of editorial-worthiness’, Journalism, 22:7, pp. 1812–30, https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884919828503.
    [Google Scholar]
37. Mayring, P. (2014), ‘Introduction: Research methods between qualitative and quantitative paradigms’, in Qualitative Content Analysis: Theoretical Foundation, Basic Procedures and Software Solution, Klagenfurt: GESIS – Leibniz-Institut für Sozialwissenschaften, pp. 6–15, https://d-nb.info/1191589749/34. Accessed 11 June 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
38. McLeod, D. (2007), ‘News coverage and social protest: How the media’s protect paradigm exacerbates social conflict’, Journal of Dispute Resolution, 12:1, pp. 1–10.
    [Google Scholar]
39. McLeod, D. and Hertog, J. K. (1998), ‘Social control and the mass media’s role in the regulation of protest groups: The communicative acts perspective’, in D. Demers and K. Viswanath (eds), Mass Media, Social Control and Social Change, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, pp. 305–30.
    [Google Scholar]
40. Mjelde, H. (2023), ‘International news media coverage of Black Lives Matter: Evidence from Norway’, International Journal of Communication, 17, pp. 1–21, https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/19490. Accessed 25 February 2024.
    [Google Scholar]
41. Mourão, R. and Brown, D. K. (2022), ‘Black Lives Matter coverage: How protest news frames and attitudinal change affect social media engagement’, Digital Journalism, 10:4, pp. 626–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1931900.
    [Google Scholar]
42. Mundt, M., Ross, K. and Burnett, C. M. (2018), ‘Scaling social movements through social media: The case of Black Lives Matter’, Social Media + Society, 4:4, https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118807911.
    [Google Scholar]
43. Mylonas, Y. (2014), ‘Crisis, austerity and opposition in mainstream media discourses of Greece’, Critical Discourse Studies, 11:3, pp. 305–21, https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2014.915862.
    [Google Scholar]
44. Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Schulz, A., Andı, S. and Nielsen Kleis, R. (2020), Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2020, Oxford: Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism.
    [Google Scholar]
45. Papanicolaou, G. and Rigakos, G. S. (2021), ‘Greece’s right-wing government is massively expanding police powers’, Jacobin, 3 April, https://jacobinmag.com/2021/04/greece-special-forces-police-university-nd?fbclid=IwAR12HdpPybhXjgzuL-ZSzD5r_5PotYERj0IN-RqnLYR-VIHoDPY9cHQEL6k. Accessed 4 April 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
46. Papathanassopoulos, S. (2019), ‘Greece’, Media Landscapes, 17 May, https://medialandscapes.org/country/greece/media/print. Accessed 9 May 2021.
47. Poell, T. (2020), ‘Social media, temporality, and the legitimacy of protest’, Social Movement Studies, 19:5–6, pp. 609–24, https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2019.1605287.
    [Google Scholar]
48. Saldana, J. (2013), Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, London: Sage Publications.
    [Google Scholar]
49. Schreier, M. (2012), Qualitative Content Analysis in Practice, London: Sage Publications.
    [Google Scholar]
50. Schulenberg, J. L. and Chenier, A. (2014), ‘International protest events and the hierarchy of credibility: Media frames defining the police and protestors as social problems’, Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 56:3, pp. 261–94, https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2012.E12.
    [Google Scholar]
51. Shoemaker, P. J. (1982), ‘The perceived legitimacy of deviant political groups: Two experiments on media effects’, Communication Research, 9:2, pp. 249–86.
    [Google Scholar]
52. Shoemaker, P. J. (1984), ‘Media treatment of deviant political groups’, Journalism Quarterly, 61:1, pp. 66–82, https://doi.org/10.1177/107769908406100109.
    [Google Scholar]
53. Strinati, D. (2004), ‘Gramsci’s concept of hegemony’, in An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, London: Routledge, pp. 153–59.
    [Google Scholar]
54. The Guardian (2008), ‘Political affiliation’, 17 November, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/nov/17/political-affiliation-guardian-observer. Accessed 4 April 2021.
55. Triandafyllidou, A. (2012), ‘MEDIVA: Newspaper evaluation of Greek newspaper Kathimerini’, MEDIVA Project, 1 April, https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/library-document/mediva-newspaper-evaluation-greek-newspaper-kathimerini_en. Accessed 4 April 2021.
56. Umamaheswar, J. (2020), ‘Policing and racial (in)justice in the media: Newspaper portrayals of the “Black Lives Matter” movement’, Civic Sociology, 1:1, pp. 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1525/001c.12143.
    [Google Scholar]