Protecting democracy from disinformation: Implications for a model of communication | Intellect Skip to content
1981
Volume 14, Issue 1
  • ISSN: 1757-1952
  • E-ISSN: 1757-1960

Abstract

This article analyses the consequences that disinformation phenomena have for a model of communication, focusing on the dangers that disinformation poses to democratic societies, especially when it is disseminated by the media. Disinformation is examined here from the perspective of social cognitive psychology, with special attention to the role played by motivated reasoning and confirmation bias in human cognition. From this perspective, disinformation phenomena should be studied not only through an analysis of how the media operate, but also through an understanding of how we process information and what we use it for from a social cognitive point of view. This article emphasizes the role that intuition and affective persuasion play in communication processes, as key elements of motivated reasoning, and argues that once this cognitive dimension is integrated into communication theory, preventive strategies can be designed to protect democracies from the dangers caused by disinformation. Ideological polarization and a lack of consensus are highlighted here as being among the biggest dangers, preventing agreement on issues that affect the proper functioning of democracy. While a certain conception of communication posits reasoning, the media and education as the tools for resolving conflicts and preventing disagreements, this article concludes that the success of disinformation phenomena points to the need for a model that includes the cognitive elements mentioned above.

Funding
This study was supported by the:
  • Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (Award PID2019-107748RB-I00)
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1386/ejpc_00050_1
2023-08-01
2024-05-01
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Barberá, Pablo,, Jost, John T.,, Nagler, Jonathan,, Tucker, Joshua A., and Bonneau, Richard. ( 2015;), ‘ Tweeting from left to right: Is online political communication more than an echo chamber?. ’, Psychological Science, 26:10, pp. 153142, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615594620.
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Brennen, J. Scott,, Simon, Felix,, Howard, Philip N., and Nielsen, Rasmus Klein. ( 2020;), ‘ Types, sources, and claims of COVID-19 misinformation. ’, Reuters Institute, 7 April, https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/types-sources-and-claims-covid-19-misinformation. Accessed 12 September 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Cardenal, Ana Sofia,, Aguilar-Paredes, Carlos,, Cristancho, Camilo, and Majó-Vázquez, Silvia. ( 2019;), ‘ Echo-chambers in online news consumption: Evidence from survey and navigation data in Spain. ’, European Journal of Communication, 34:4, pp. 36076, https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323119844409.
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Carey, James W.. ( 1989;), ‘ A cultural approach to communication. ’, in J. W. Carey. (ed.), Communication as Culture, Boston, MA:: Unwin Hyman;, pp. 1336.
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Carrieri, Vicenzo,, Madio, Leonardo, and Principe, Francesco. ( 2019;), ‘ Vaccine hesitancy and (fake) news: Quasi-experimental evidence from Italy. ’, Health Economics, 28:11, pp. 137782, https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3937.
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Chambers, Simone. ( 2021;), ‘ Truth, deliberative democracy, and the virtues of accuracy: Is fake news destroying the public sphere?. ’, Political Studies, 69:1, pp. 14763, https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719890811.
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Cook, John,, Ellerton, Peter, and Kinkead, David. ( 2018;), ‘ Deconstructing climate misinformation to identify reasoning errors. ’, Environmental Research Letters, 13:2, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aaa49f.
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Cook, John, and Lewandowsky, Stephan. ( 2016;), ‘ Rational irrationality: Modeling climate change belief polarization using Bayesian networks. ’, Topics in Cognitive Science, 8:1, pp. 16079, https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12186.
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Crozier, William E., and Strange, Deryn. ( 2019;), ‘ Correcting the misinformation effect. ’, Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33:4, pp. 58595, https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3499.
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Dretske, Fred. ( 1988), Explaining Behaviour: Reasons in a World of Causes, Cambridge, MA:: MIT Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Elsasser, Shaun W., and Dunlap, Riley E.. ( 2013;), ‘ Leading voices in the denier choir: Conservative columnists’ dismissal of global warming and denigration of climate science. ’, American Behavioral Scientist, 57:6, pp. 75476, https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764212469800.
    [Google Scholar]
  12. European Commission ( 2018;), ‘ A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation: Report of the independent high level group on fake news and online disinformation. ’, European Commission, Luxembourg:: Publications Office of the European Union;, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/6ef4df8b-4cea-11e8-be1d-01aa75ed71a1/language-en. Accessed 18 August 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Froehlich, Thomas. ( 2017;), ‘ A not-so-brief account of current information ethics: The ethics of ignorance, missing information, misinformation, disinformation and other forms of deception or incompetence. ’, BiD: textos, universitaris de biblioteconomia i documentació, 39, http://dx.doi.org/10.1344/BiD2017.39.8.
    [Google Scholar]
  14. González-Andrío Jiménez, Rocío,, Bernal Bravo, César,, Palomero, Ilardia, and Irene, Magdalena. ( 2020;), ‘ Uso de las redes sociales entre los jóvenes y ciudadanía digital: Análisis tras la COVID-19. ’, REIDICS, 7, pp. 6481, https://doi.org/10.17398/2531-0968.07.64.
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Habermas, Jürgen. ( 1962), The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, Cambridge, MA:: MIT Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Habermas, Jürgen. ( 2006;), ‘ Political communication in media society: Does democracy still enjoy an epistemic dimension. ’, The Impact of Normative Theory on Empirical Research: Communication Theory, 16:4, pp. 41126, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2006.00280.x.
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Haidt, Jonathan. ( 2001;), ‘ The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. ’, Psychological Review, 108:4, pp. 81434, https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814.
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Haidt, Jonathan. ( 2006), The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom, New York:: Basic Books;.
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Haidt, Jonathan. ( 2012), The Righteous Mind: How Good People are Divided by Politics and Religion, New York:: Pantheon Books;.
    [Google Scholar]
  20. House of Commons ( 2019;), ‘ Disinformation and “fake news”: Final report – Eighth report of session 2017–19. ’, London:: House of Commons;, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/1791/1791.pdf. Accessed 23 July 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Hull, D.. ( 1988), Science As a Process, Chicago, IL:: University of Chicago Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Kahan, Dan M.,, Jenkins-Smith, Hank, and Barman, Donald. ( 2011;), ‘ Cultural cognition of scientific consensus. ’, Journal of Risk Research, 14:2, pp. 14774.
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Kapantai, Eleni,, Christopoulou, Androniki,, Berberidis, Christos, and Peristeras, Vassilios. ( 2020;), ‘ A systematic literature review on disinformation: Toward a unified taxonomical framework. ’, New Media & Society, 23:5, pp. 130126, https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820959296.
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Lakatos, Imre. ( 1976;), ‘ Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. ’, in S. G. Harding. (ed.), Can Theories Be Refuted?, Dordrecht:: Springer;.
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Lasswell, Harold. ( 1927;), ‘ The theory of political propaganda. ’, American Political Science Review, 21, pp. 62731.
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Lasswell, Harold. ( 1934), World Politics and Personal Insecurity, Chicago, IL:: University of Chicago Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Lewandowsky, Stephan,, Ecker, Ullrich K., and Cook, John. ( 2017a;), ‘ Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. ’, Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6:4, pp. 35369, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008.
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Lewandowsky, Stephan,, Ecker, Ullrich K., and Cook, John. ( 2017b;), ‘ Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: Exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. ’, PLOS ONE, 12:5, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175799.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Lewandowsky, Stephan,, Ecker, Urlich K.,, Seifert, Colleen M.,, Schwarz, Norbert, and Cook, John. ( 2012;), ‘ Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. ’, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13:3, pp. 10631, https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018.
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Lilleker, Darren G., and Liefbroer, Mirjam. ( 2018;), ‘ “Searching for something to believe in”: Voter uncertainty in a post-truth environment. , International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics, 14:3, pp. 35166, https://doi.org/10.1386/macp.14.3.351_1.
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Lippman, Walter. ( 1922), Public Opinion, New York:: Macmillan;.
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Mason, Lance E.,, Krutka, Dan, and Stoddard, Jeremy. ( 2018;), ‘ Media literacy, democracy, and the challenge of fake news. ’, Journal of Media Literacy Education, 10:2, pp. 110, https://doi.org/10.23860/JMLE-2018-10-2-1.
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Mayo, Ruth,, Alfasi, Dana, and Schwarz, Norbert. ( 2014;), ‘ Distrust and the positive test heuristic: Dispositional and situated social distrust improves performance on the Wason Rule Discovery Task. ’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143:3, pp. 98590, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035127.
    [Google Scholar]
  34. McCright, Aaron M., and Dunlap, Riley E.. ( 2011;), ‘ The politicization of climate change and polarization in the American public’s views of global warming, 2001–2010. ’, The Sociological Quarterly, 52:2, pp. 15594, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2011.01198.x.
    [Google Scholar]
  35. McDermott, Rose. ( 2019;), ‘ Psychological underpinnings of post-truth in political beliefs. ’, PS, Political Science & Politics, 52:2, pp. 21822, https://doi.org/10.1017/S104909651800207X.
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Mercier, Hugo, and Sperber, Dan. ( 2011;), ‘ Why do humans reason: Arguments for an argumentative theory. ’, Brain and Behavioral Sciences, 34, pp. 5774.
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Mercier, Hugo, and Sperber, Dan. ( 2017), The Enigma of Reason, Cambridge, MA:: Harvard University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Millikan, Ruth. ( 1984), Language, Thought and Other Biological Categories, Cambridge, MA:: MIT Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Mouffe, Chantal. ( 1999), El retorno de lo político: Comunidad, ciudadanía, pluralismo, democracia radica, Barcelona:: Paidós Ibérica;.
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Nyhan, Brendan, and Reifler, Jason. ( 2010;), ‘ When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. ’, Political Behaviour, 32, pp. 30330, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2.
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Oxford Dictionary ( 2016;), ‘ Word of the year. ’, 16 November, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/word-of-the-year/word-of-the-year-2016. Accessed 2 July 2021.
  42. Pérez Zafrilla, Pedro Jesús. ( 2013;), ‘ Implicaciones normativas de la psicología moral: Jonathan Haidt y el desconcierto moral: Deimon. ’, Revista Internacional de Filosofía, 59, pp. 925.
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Peters, Uwe. ( 2020;), ‘ What is the function of confirmation bias?. ’, Erkenntinis, 87, pp. 126, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-020-00252-1.
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Popper, Karl. ( 1975;), ‘ The rationality of scientific revolutions. ’, in R. Harre. (ed.), Problems of Scientific Revolution: Progress and Obstacles to Progress, Oxford:: Clarendon Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Post, Senja. ( 2019;), ‘ Polarizing communication as media effects on antagonists: Understanding communication in conflicts in digital media societies. ’, Communication Theory, 29:2, pp. 21335, https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qty022.
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Radford, Gary. ( 2005), On the Philosophy of Communication, Florence:: Wadsworth Publishing Company;.
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Roozenbeek, Jon, and van der Linden, Sander. ( 2019;), ‘ Fake news game confers psychological resistance against online misinformation. ’, Palgrave Communications, 5:1, pp. 110, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0279-9.
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Salaverría, Ramón,, Buslón, Nataly,, López-Pan, Fernando,, León, Bienvenido,, López-Goñi, Ignacio, and Erviti, María-Carmen. ( 2020;), ‘ Desinformación en tiempos de pandemia: Tipología de los bulos sobre la Covid-19. ’, El profesional de la información (EPI), 29:3, https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.may.15.
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Sánchez, Lydia. ( 2020;), ‘ Epistemología y ciencias sociales en la era de la anti-ilustración. ’, in J. Prats. (ed.), Ciencias sociales, ciudadanía y sociedad digital: Reflexiones desde la educación, Gijón:: Editorial Trea;.
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Sánchez, Lydia, and Campos, Manuel. ( 2009;), ‘ Content and sense. ’, Empedocles European Journal for the Philosophy of Communication, 1:1, pp. 7590, https://doi.org/10.1386/ejpc.1.1.75/1.
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Shannon, Claude, and Weaver, Warren. ( 1963), The Mathematical Theory of Communication, Urbana, IL and Chicago, IL:: Illinois University Press;.
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Spohr, Dominic. ( 2017;), ‘ Fake news and ideological polarization: Filter bubbles and selective exposure on social media. ’, Business Information Review, 34:3, pp. 15060, https://doi.org/10.1177/0266382117722446.
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Stroud, Natali Jomini. ( 2010;), ‘ Polarization and partisan selective exposure. ’, Journal of Communication, 60:3, pp. 55676, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01497.x.
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Thorson, Emily. ( 2016;), ‘ Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation. ’, Political Communication, 33:3, pp. 46080, https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187.
    [Google Scholar]
  55. van Zoonen, Liesbet. ( 1994;), ‘ A “new” paradigm?. ’, in D. McQuail. (ed.), McQuail’s Reader in Mass Communication Theory, London:: Sage Publications;, pp. 4859.
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Wardle, Clare, and Derakhshan, Hossein. ( 2017;), ‘ Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making. ’, Council of Europe Report, 27, pp. 1107, https://rm.coe.int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c. Accessed 13 August 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journals/10.1386/ejpc_00050_1
Loading
/content/journals/10.1386/ejpc_00050_1
Loading

Data & Media loading...

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a success
Invalid data
An error occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error