Multimodal Islamophobia: Gendered stereotypes in memes

References

1. Agathangelou, A. M. and Ling, L. H. M. (2004), ‘Power, borders, security, wealth: Lessons of violence and desire from September 11’, International Studies Quarterly, 48:3, pp. 517–38.
   [Google Scholar]
2. Aguilera-Carnerero, C. and Azeez, A. H. (2016), ‘“Islamonausea, not Islamophobia”: The many faces of cyberhate speech’, Journal of Arab and Muslim Media Research, 9:1, pp. 21–40, https://doi.org/10.1386/jammr.9.1.21_1.
   [Google Scholar]
3. Akbarzadeh, S. and Smith, B. J. (2005), The Representation of Islam and Muslims in the Media (The Age and Herald Newspapers), Melbourne: Monash University.
   [Google Scholar]
4. Ali, I. (2020), ‘Muslim women meme-ing citizenship in the era of War on Terror militarism’, Quarterly Journal of Speech, 106:3, pp. 334–40, https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2020.1785629.
   [Google Scholar]
5. Awan, I. (2012), ‘“I’m a Muslim not an extremist”: How the prevent strategy has constructed a “suspect community”’, Politics & Policy, 40:6, pp. 1158–85.
   [Google Scholar]
6. Bail, C. (2015), Terrified: How Anti-Muslim Fringe Organizations Became Mainstream, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   [Google Scholar]
7. Baker, P., Gabrielatos, C. and McEnery, T. (2013), ‘Sketching Muslims: A corpus driven analysis of representations around the word “Muslim” in the British press 1998–2009’, Applied Linguistics, 34:3, pp. 1–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/ams048.
   [Google Scholar]
8. Barthes, R. (1977), Image-Music-Text, London: Fontana Press.
   [Google Scholar]
9. Beydoun, K. A. (2018), American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear, Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
   [Google Scholar]
10. Billig, M. (2001), ‘Humour and hatred: The racist jokes of the Klu Klux Klan’, Discourse & Society, 12:3, pp. 267–89, https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926501012003001.
    [Google Scholar]
11. Bogerts, L. and Fielitz, M. (2019), ‘“Do you want meme war?” Understanding the visual memes of the German Far Right’, in M. Feilitz and N. Thurston (eds), Post-Digital Cultures of the Far-Right Online Actions and Offline Consequences in Europe and the US, Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag, pp. 137–54.
    [Google Scholar]
12. Bullock, K. H. (2000), ‘The gaze and colonial plans for the unveiling of Muslim women’, Studies in Contemporary Islam, 2:2, pp. 1–20.
    [Google Scholar]
13. Bullock, K. H. and Jafri, G. (2002), ‘Media (mis)representations: Muslim women in the Canadian nation’, Canadian Women’s Studies, 20:2, pp. 35–40.
    [Google Scholar]
14. Chao, E. C. (2015), ‘The-truth-about-Islam.com: Ordinary theories of racism and cyber Islamophobia’, Critical Sociology, 41:1, pp. 57–75.
    [Google Scholar]
15. Crawford, B. (2020), ‘The influence of memes in far-right radicalisation’, CARR, 9 June, https://www.radicalrightanalysis.com/2020/06/09/the-influence-of-memes-on-far-right-radicalisation/. Accessed 18 December 2021.
16. Dahinden, U., Koch, C., Wyss, V. and Keel, G. (2011), ‘Representation of Islam and Christianity in the Swiss media’, Journal of Empirical Theology, 24:2, pp. 197–208, https://doi.org/10.1163/157092511X603983.
    [Google Scholar]
17. Davidson, P. (2012), ‘The language of (internet) memes’, in M. Mandiberg (ed.), The Social Media Reader, New York: NYU Press, pp. 120–27.
    [Google Scholar]
18. Dawkins, R. ([1976] 1989), The Selfish Gene, new ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
19. Eisenstein, Z. (1994), ‘Writing hatred on the body’, New Political Science, 15:3&4, pp. 5–22.
    [Google Scholar]
20. Fahmi, S. (2004), ‘Picturing Afghan women. A content analysis of AP wire photographs during the Taliban regime before and after the fall of the Taliban regime’, Gazette: The International Journal of Communication Studies, 66:2, pp. 91–112, https://doi.org/10.1177/0016549204041472.
    [Google Scholar]
21. Fanon, F. (1965), A Dying Colonialism, New York: Grove Press.
    [Google Scholar]
22. Farokhi, Z. (2021), ‘Cyber homo sacer: A critical analysis of cyber Islamophobia in the wake of the Muslim Ban’, Islamophobia Studies Journal, 6:1, pp. 14–32.
    [Google Scholar]
23. Feldman, M. (2019), ‘“Just joking” is not joke: How the alt-right really communicates online’, in W. Allchorn (ed.), Tracking the Rise of the Radical Right Globally, Stuttgart: Ibidem Verlag, pp. 359–62.
    [Google Scholar]
24. Fielitz, M. and Thurston, N. (eds) (2019), Post-Digital Cultures of the Far Right Online Actions and Offline Consequences in Europe and the US, Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag.
    [Google Scholar]
25. Forceville, C. (2008), ‘Pictorial and multimodal metaphor’, in E. McQuarrie and B. Phillips (eds), Go Figure! New Directions in Advertising Rhetoric, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, pp. 272–310, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110296099-011.
    [Google Scholar]
26. Forchtner, B. and Kølvraa, C. (2017), ‘Extreme right images of radical authenticity: Multimodal aesthetics of history, nature, and gender roles in social media’, European Journal of Cultural and Political Sociology, 4:3, pp. 252–81, https://doi.org/10.1080/23254823.2017.1322910.
    [Google Scholar]
27. Gal, N. (2019), ‘Ironic humour on social media as participatory boundary work’, New Media & Society, 21:3, pp. 729–49, https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1461444818805719.
    [Google Scholar]
28. Hakoköngäs, E., Halmesvaara, O. and Sakki, I. (2020), ‘Persuasion through bitter humour: Multimodal discourse analysis of rhetoric in internet memes of two far-right groups in Finland’, Social Media & Society, 6:2, pp. 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120921575.
    [Google Scholar]
29. Halliday, M. A. K. ([1985] 1994), An Introduction to Functional Grammar, London: Edward Arnold.
    [Google Scholar]
30. Huntington, S. P. (1993), ‘The clash of civilizations?’, Foreign Affairs, 72:3, pp. 22–49.
    [Google Scholar]
31. Jakobson, R. (1963), Essais de Linguistique Generale, Paris: Minuit.
    [Google Scholar]
32. Jenkins, H., Ford, S. and Green, J. (2013), Spreadable Media: Creating Value and Meaning in a Networked Culture, New York: NYU Press.
    [Google Scholar]
33. Jewitt, C. (2016), ‘Multimodal analysis’, in A. Georgakopoulou and T. Spilioti (eds), Handbook of Language and Digital Communication, Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 69–84.
    [Google Scholar]
34. Kingdon, A. (2021), ‘The meme is the method: Examining the power of the image within extremist propaganda’, in A. Lavorgna and T. J. Holt (eds), Researching Cybercrimes: Methodologies, Ethics, and Critical Approaches, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 301–25.
    [Google Scholar]
35. Knobel, M. and Lankshear, C. (2006), ‘Online memes, affinities, and cultural production’, in M. Knobel and C. Lankshear (eds), A New Literacy Sampler, New York: Peter Lang, pp. 199–227.
    [Google Scholar]
36. Kress, G. (2010), Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication, London: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
37. Kress, G. (2012), ‘Multimodal discourse analysis’, in J. P. Gee and M. Hanford (eds), The Routledge Handbook of Discourse Analysis, Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 35–50.
    [Google Scholar]
38. Kress, G. and van Leeuwen, T. ([1996] 2006), Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design, New York: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
39. Kutty, S. (1997), Speaking for Her: The Representation of the Muslim Woman in Popular Culture, Scarborough: Canadian Muslim Civil Liberties Association.
    [Google Scholar]
40. Larsson, G. (2007), ‘Cyber-Islamophobia? The case of WikiIslam’, Contemporary Islam, 1:1, pp. 53–67, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-007-0002-2.
    [Google Scholar]
41. Mattheis, A. (2019), ‘Manifesto memes: The radical right’s new dangerous visual rhetorics’, Rantt Media, 19 September, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/countering-radical-right/manifesto-memes-the-radical-rights-new-dangerous-visual-rhetorics/. Accessed 23 March 2022.
42. McCloud, S. (1994), Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art, New York: Harper Collins.
    [Google Scholar]
43. Milner, R. (2012), ‘The world made meme: Discourse and identity in participatory media’, Ph.D. thesis, Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas.
    [Google Scholar]
44. Milner, R. (2013), ‘Media lingua franca: Fixity, novelty, and vernacular creativity in internet memes’, in AoIR Selected Papers of Internet Research, vol. 14, Denver, CO: USA, https://spir.aoir.org/ojs/index.php/spir/article/view/8725. Accessed 17 December 2021.
    [Google Scholar]
45. Mohanty, C. (1984), ‘Under western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses’, Boundary, 2:12&13, pp. 333–58.
    [Google Scholar]
46. Moore, K., Mason, P. and Lewis, J. (2008), The Representation of British Muslims in the National Print News Media 2000–2008, Cardiff: Cardiff School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies.
    [Google Scholar]
47. Perry, B. (2014), ‘Gendered Islamophobia: Hate crime against Muslim women’, Social Identities, 20:1, pp. 74–89, https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2013.864467.
    [Google Scholar]
48. Pintak, L., Bowe, B. J. and Albright, J. (2021), ‘Influencers, amplifiers, and icons: A systematic approach to understanding the roles of Islamophobic actors on Twitter’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 99:4, pp. 955–79.
    [Google Scholar]
49. Ramírez, Á. (2014), ‘Control over female “Muslim” bodies: Culture, politics and dress code laws in some Muslim and non-Muslim countries’, Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power, 22:6, pp. 671–86, https://doi.org/10.1080/1070289X.2014.950972.
    [Google Scholar]
50. Ruby, T. (2004), Immigrant Muslim Women and the Hijab: Sites of Struggle in Crafting and Negotiating Identities in Canada, Saskatoon: Community-University Institute for Social Research.
    [Google Scholar]
51. Runnymede Trust (1997), Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, London: The Runnymede Trust, https://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/islamophobia-a-challenge-for-us-all. Accessed 20 March 2014.
    [Google Scholar]
52. Saeed, A. (2007), ‘Media, racism and islamophobia: The representation of Islam and Muslims in the media’, Sociology Compass, 1:2, pp. 443–62.
    [Google Scholar]
53. Said, E. W. (1978), Orientalism, New York: Pantheon Books.
    [Google Scholar]
54. Segev, E., Nissenbaum, A., Stolero, N. and Shifman, L. (2015), ‘Families and networks of internet memes: The relationship between cohesiveness, uniqueness, and quiddity concreteness’, Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 20:4, pp. 417–33.
    [Google Scholar]
55. Shifman, L. (2014), Memes in Digital Culture, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
    [Google Scholar]
56. Shyrock, A. (ed.) (2010), Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend, Indiana Series in Middle East Studies, Bloomington, IN and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
57. Tayyen, S. (2017), ‘From Orientalist sexual object to burkini terrorist threat: Muslim women through evolving lens’, Islamophobia Studies Journal, 4:1, pp. 101–14, https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.4.1.0101.
    [Google Scholar]
58. Toffler, A. (1980), The Third Wave, New York: Bantam.
    [Google Scholar]
59. Ul Hassan Sumra, A. (2020) ‘Muslims and Islam in Indian English press: Exploring the islamophobic discourse’, Islamophobia Studies Journal, 5:2, pp. 226–37.
    [Google Scholar]
60. Whittaker, B. (2002), ‘Islam and the British press after 9/11’, al-bab blog, https://al-bab.com/special-topics/islam-and-british-press-after-september-11. Accessed 12 December 2014.
61. Wiggins, B. E. (2019), The Discourse Power of Memes in Digital Culture: Ideology, Semiotics and Intertextuality, London: Routledge.
    [Google Scholar]
62. Yoon, I. (2016), ‘Why is it not a joke? Analysis of internet memes associated with racism and hidden ideology of colourblindness’, Journal of Cultural Research in Art Education, 33:1, pp. 92–123.
    [Google Scholar]
63. Yus, F. (2019), ‘Multimodality in memes. A cyberpragmatic approach’, in P. Bou-Franch and P. Garcés-Conejos Blitvich (eds), Analyzing Digital Discourse: New Insights and Future Directions, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 105–31.
    [Google Scholar]
64. Zappavigna, M. (2012), Discourse of Twitter and Social Media, London: Continuum.
    [Google Scholar]
65. Zempi, I. and Awan, I. (2016), Islamophobia: Lived Experiences of Online and Offline Victimisation, Bristol: Bristol University Press.
    [Google Scholar]
66. Zimbardo, Z. (2014), ‘Cultural politics of humor in (de)normalizing islamophobic stereotypes’, Islamophobia Studies Journal, 2:1, pp. 59–81, https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.2.1.0059.
    [Google Scholar]